Sobek the God of Crocs

Sobek (also known as Sebek, Sebek-Ra, Sobeq, Suchos, Sobki, and Soknopais) was the ancient god of crocodiles. He is first mentioned in the Pyramid Texts and his worship continued until the Roman period. Some sects believed that Sobek was the creator of the world who arose from the "Dark Water" and created the order in the universe. Sobek was a god of the Nile who brought fertility to the land. As the "Lord of the Waters" he was thought to have risen from the primeval waters of Nun to create the world and made the Nile from his sweat. One creation myth stated that Sobek laid eggs on the bank of the waters of Nun thus creating the world. However, as well as being a force for creation, he was seen as an unpredictable deity who sometimes allied himself with the forces of Chaos.

Sobek first appeared in the Old Kingdom as the son of Neith with the epithet "The Rager". According to some myths his father was Set, the god of thunder and chaos, but he also had a close association with Horus. He was paired with a number of goddesses in different locations, most notably Hathor, Renenutet, Heqet and Taweret, and was sometimes referred to as the father of Khonsu, Horus or Khnum.

In some areas, a tame crocodile was worshiped as the earthly embodiment of Sobek himself, while in other places crocodiles were reviled, hunted and killed. It seems likely that Sobek began as a dark god who had to be appeased, but that his protective qualities and his strength were valued when they were used in defence of the Pharaoh and the people. He could protect the justified dead in the netherworld, restoring their sight and reviving their senses. Because of his ferocity, he was considered to be the patron of the army.

Sobek was sometimes considered to be an aspect of Horus because Horus took the form of a crocodile to retrieve the parts of Osiris' body which were lost in the Nile. Yet Sobek was also thought to have assisted Isis when she gave birth to Horus. He also rescued the four mummiform sons of Horus (Imsety the human headed protector of the liver, Hapy the baboon headed protector of the lungs, Duamutef the jackal headed protector of the stomach and Qebehsenuef the falcon headed protector of the intestines) by gathering them in a net when they rose from the waters in a lotus bloom. However, he was also associated with Set, the enemy of Osiris. He was also worshiped as the manifestation of Amun-Re and was often depicted wearing either the headdress of Amun or the sun disk of Ra.

The strength and speed of the crocodile was thought to be symbolic of the power of the Pharaoh, and the word "sovereign" was written with the hieroglyph of a crocodile. It was thought that Sobek could protect the Pharaoh from dark magic. During the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, the cult of Sobek was given particular prominence and a number of rulers incorporated him in their coronation names.

He was depicted as a crocodile, a mummified crocodile or a man with the head of a crocodile. He often wore a plumed headdress with a horned sun disk or the atef crown (associating him with Amon-Ra) and carried the Was sceptre (representing power) and the Ankh (representing the breath of life). Mummified crocodiles representing the god have been found in many ancient tombs. The Egyptians mummified both infant and mature crocodiles and even interred crocodile eggs and foetuses with the deceased in order to enlist the protection of Sobek in the afterlife.

Sobek was known as the Lord of Faiyum, and it is thought that his worship originated in that area. In particular, he was very popular in the city of Arsinoe (known as Shedyet by the Egyptians) near the Faiyum, causing the Greeks to rename the city Crocodilopolis. There is a twelfth dynasty temple at Medinet Madi dedicated to Sobek, his wife Renenutet (the snake goddess who was the protector of the harvest and granaries), and Horus. The temple was originally built by Amenemhet III and Amenemhet IV, but restored during the New Kingdom and expanded during the Ptolemaic period. Tame crocodiles were kept in a sacred pool and hand fed choice cuts of meat and honey cakes and adorned with precious jewels.

However, worship of the god extended to Thebes and Kom Ombo where there was a dual temple dedicated to Sobek and Horus. The left (northern) side was dedicated to Horus the elder (as opposed to Horus son of Isis) while the right side (southern) was dedicated to Sobek. Each temple has its own entrance, chapels and its own dedicated priests. The temple was constructed during the Ptolemaic period, but there is evidence of an older structure at that location which may date from the New Kingdom. In the temple of Kom Ombo, Horus appears with his wife Tesentefert (the good sister) and his son Panebtawy (the child god) while Sobek appears with Hathor (who is more often considered to be the wife of Horus the elder) and his son Khonsu (usually considered to be the son of Amun and Mut).

Horus of Behdet (Edfu) God of the Midday Sun

Horus of Behdet (often known as Behdety) was a god of the midday sun. The name Behedet is rather problematic. The first time that the god "Horus of Behedet" is mentioned it is on a carving in the Step Pyramid of Djoser and the reference makes it clear that Behedet is associated with Upper Egypt. However, Behedet is also a place in Lower Egypt. In any case, Behedet soon became associated with Edfu (Upper Egypt) the location of a major cult of Horus.


Horus of Edfu was locked in a perpetual battle with Set and his army of darkness to make sure that the sun rises every morning. In Edfu, he was considered to be the husband of Hathor and the father of Hor-sema-tawy ("Horus Uniter of the Two Lands" also known as Harsomptus). After eighty years of battle, he was awarded the kingship of Upper and Lower Egypt by the tribunal of gods. In Edfu and Kom Ombo he was also known as Panebtawy ("lord of the two lands") and in Behedet he was worshipped as Hor-Iwn-Mutef ("Horus pillar of his mother").

Horus Behdety was represented as a winged sun disk on temples all over Egypt, just as Ra had apparently decreed. However, he was also depicted as a lion, a lion with the head of a hawk and as a hawk hovering over the pharaoh during battle carrying a flail (representing royal power) and the shen (representing eternity) grasped in his claws. As a hawk he was given the epithet "Great God, Lord of Heaven, Dappled of Plumage". In addition, he was frequently depicted as a man with the head of a falcon wearing the double crown of Upperand Lower Egypt. In this form he often carries a falcon-headed staff, representing the form he took when he killed Set.


According to myth it was discovered that the followers of Set were plotting against Ra during his earthly reign. Ra sent his son, Horus, who flew into the sky in the form of a winged sun disc. From the sky he could see all of Ra´s enemies and he swooped down like a falcon and attacked so ferociously that they ran away. Horus was then given the town of Edfu for his efforts. The plotters then changed themselves into crocodiles and hippopotami and attacked Ra's solar boat. Horus (and friends) drove them away with harpoons. To protect the solar boat, Horus took the form of a winged-sun disk and perched on the ships prow. This began the superstition that it was good luck to paint eyes on the bow of your ship. Horus chased the fleeing army and beheaded the leader (named as Set) before dragging him by the feet throughout Egypt.

It should be noted that this was rather a late myth, which places Set as an all out evil character and confuses Horus Behedet with Horus son of Isis. The leader was considered to be the god Set reborn and therefore the murderer of Horus´ father Osiris. The myth continues by stating that Set continued to fight in lower Egypt in the form of a serpent while Horus defended Egypt in the form of a falcon-headed staff. Horus was, of course, victorious and continued into Upper Egypt quelling rebellion as he went. Ra decreed that the winged-sun disk would hence forth be inscribed on every temple and shrine in recognition of Horus' victory.

Horus
Heru-ur (Horus the elder)
Khenty-Khem (foremost of Khem, Khenty-irty, Menkhenty-irty)
Heru-sa-Aset (Horus the child of Isis)
Horemakhet (Horus in the horizons)
Horakhty (Horus of the two horizons)

Khnum (Khnemu, Khenmu, Khenmew, Chnum) the Water God

Khnum

Khnum (Khnemu, Khenmu, Khenmew, Chnum) was one of the most ancient gods of Egypt, whose worship is thought to have been popular as early as the Predynastic Period. References from the Pyramid Texts of Unas confirm that his worship was long established even at that early stage and the Old Kingdom pharaoh Khufu (the builder of the Great Pyramid) was actually called "Khnum-Khufu" ("Khnum is his Protector"). However, it seems that the cult of Ra (or Re) rose to dominance at that time and Khnum was pushed to the sidelines as Khufu's son and grandson (Khaf-Re and Menkau-Re) both took names honouring Ra.

Khnum was originally a water god who was thought to rule over all water, including the rivers and lakes of the underworld. He was associated with the source of the Nile, and ensured that the inundation deposited enough precious black silt onto the river banks to make them fertile. The silt also formed the clay, the raw material required to make pottery. As a result he was closely associated with the art of pottery. According to one creation myth, Khnum moulded everything on his potters wheel, including both the people and the other gods. In Iunyt (Esna, in the 3rd Nome of Upper Egypt) it was proposed that he also created the "First Egg" from which the sun was born (as Nefertum, Atum or Ra).

As well as creating the body and the "ka" (spirit) of each newborn child, he could bless the child. The Westcar Papyrus from the Second Intermediate Period includes the story of Khufu and the Magician in which the birth of three pharaohs is attended by Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, Heqet and Khnum. After each child was born Khnum gave them the gift of "health". The pharaoh Hatshepsut also claimed that Khnum had formed her "ka" and given her the blessing of health at the request of her "father" Amun-Ra.

Khnum was also a protective deity of the dead. Spells invoking the assistance of Khnum can be found in the Book of the Dead and on many of the heart-scarabs interred with the dead because it was thought that he would help the deceased obtain a favourable judgement in the Halls of Ma´at.

The ram was considered to be a very potent animal, and so Khnum was assocaited with fertility. He makes an appearance on the "Famine Stele" found on Sehel island. The stele (which was allegedly inscribed during the reign of Djoser) tells that the pharaoh dreamed that the god would deliver the country from a terrible famine if a temple was built in his honour. The pharaoh immediately consecrated a temple to Khnum, and as promised the famine came to an end.

Khnum was one of the gods who was thought to have helped Ra on his perilous nocturnal journey through the underworld. It is also thought that he created the boat which carried Ra and helped defend the sun god against the serpent Apep (Apothis). Yet, he was sometimes considered to be the "ba" of Ra, because the word for "ram" in egyptian was also "ba". When Khnum was merged with Ra to form the composite deity Khnum-Ra this deity was associated with Nun (who represented the primeaval waters), and given the epithet Hap-ur ("great Nile" or " Nile of heaven").

His cult was centered on the island of Abu (Elephantine 1st nome of Upper Egypt) where he had been worshiped since the Early Dynastic period . During the New Kingdom he was worshiped there as head of a triad with his wife Satetand his daughter Anuket. He was also worshipped at Esna (Iunyt) where he was thought to be married to both Menhet and Nebtu (a local goddess) and to be the father of Heka (god of magic known as "He Who Activates the Ka"). He was also though to be the husband of Neith at Esna. In Antinoe (Her-wer) he was married to Heqet, the frog goddess associated with childbirth and conception. He was associated with Her-shef at Herakleopolis Magna, and was often linked to Osiris. He was sometimes associated with Isis to represent the Upper Egypt, just as Ptah-Tanen was associated with Nepthys in representing Lower Egypt.

His name derives from the root khnem, "to join, to unite," and with khnem, "to build"; astronomically the name refers to the "conjuction" of the sun and moon at stared seasons of the year, Khnum was the 'Father of Fathers and the Mother of Mothers' of the pharaoh. As a water god he was sometimes named "KebH", meaning "purify". He was depicted as either a ram, a man with the head of a ram or a man with the horns of a ram. He was (very rarely) depicted with the head of a hawk, indicating his solar connections. He often wears the plumed white crown of Upper Egypt and was sometimes shown as holding a jar with water flowing out of it indicating his link with the source of the Nile. During the early period he was depicted as the early type of domesticated ram (with long corkscrew horns growing horizontally outwards from his head), but in later times was represented by the same type of ram as Amun (with horns curving inward towards him). Occasionally he was depicted with four ram heads (representing sun god Ra, the air god Shu, the earth god Geb and Osiris the god of the underworld ). In this form he was known as Sheft-hat.

Tomb of unknown queen discovered in Egypt

A Czech archeology team in Egypt has uncovered an intriguing find: the tomb of a previously unknown queen.

The discovery was made in an Old Kingdom necropolis southwest of Cairo in Abusir, home to the pyramid of Pharaoh Neferefre, who ruled 4,500 years ago. The tomb was found in Neferefre's funeral complex, and it's believed that the queen was Neferefre's wife.

Until 2014, no consort of Neferefre was known. Late in this year however, the mastaba of Khentkaus III was discovered by archaeologists from the Czech Institute of Egyptology working in Abusir, south east of Neferefre's pyramid. The location and date of the tomb as well as inscriptions found in it strongly suggest that Khentkaus III was Neferefre's queen. Indeed, not only was Khentkaus III likely buried during the few decades following Neferefre's reign, but her mastaba is also in close proximity to his pyramid, and she bore the title of "King's wife", proving that she was a queen.

In a statement to the Agence France-Presse, Egypt's Antiquities Minister Mamdouh el-Damaty called the queen Khentakawess III, noting that this is the "first time we have discovered the name of this queen who had been unknown before the discovery of her tomb."

The tomb, which one official said dated back to the middle of the 5th Dynasty (2994-2345 BC), had an inscription that indicates its owner was the "king's wife." Archaeologists also found roughly 30 utensils made from limestone and copper.

"This discovery will help us shed light on certain unknown aspects of the Fifth Dynasty, which along with the Fourth Dynasty, witnessed the construction of the first pyramids," el-Damaty told the AFP.
The expedition was led by the Czech Institute of Egyptology, which is affiliated with Charles University in Prague. The team's leader, Miroslav Barta, said in a statement that their newest find is just more proof of how ripe the Abusir site is for further research.

"This is another significant discovery in the last few years (that) have repeatedly confirmed that the Abusir necropolis provides a number of unique sources for the reconstruction of major epochs of ancient Egyptian history," Barta said.

Pyramid of Neferefre

Pyramid of Neferefre
Owner	Neferefre
Location	Egypt
Coordinates
Ancient name	Nṯr.j-b3w-Rˁ-nfr=f Netjeri-bau-Ra-nefer-ef Divine is Neferefre's Power
Constructed	Fifth Dynasty (2460 – 2455 BC)
Type	True pyramid later reconstructed into a mastaba
Material	Limestone
Height	7 metres (23 ft)
Base	65 metres (213 ft)
Slope	78° (after Mastaba rebuild)
Location of Pyramid of Neferefre

The Pyramid of Neferefre, also known as the Pyramid of Raneferef, is an unfinished Egyptian pyramid from the 5th Dynasty, located in the necropolis of Abusir, Egypt. After the early death of Pharaoh Neferefre, the unfinished building was reconstructed into a geometric mastaba, becoming the burial place of the deceased king. Despite the demolition of the actual pyramid, the complex was augmented through extensive construction of temples by Raneferef's successors.

The pyramid was initially ignored by egyptologists. The first assignment was made by Karl Richard Lepsius, who called it Lepsius XXVI, but a definitive research was established in 1974 by the Czech team of Charles University in Prague under Miroslav Verner. Items as papyri and statues were discovered consisting of important information about the short-ruling Neferefre. Known as nTri bAw nfrf ra ("Divine is Neferefre's Power"), the complex is located directly south-west of the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai and west of the Pyramid of Khentkaus II, and situated at the southern end of the necropolis, becoming the farthest into the desert of all pyramids of Abusir. With a base length of 65 metres (213 ft) it could have been the second-smallest king pyramid in the Old Kingdom of Egypt after the Pyramid of Unas. Apart from the actual pyramid, the complex includes the mortuary temple, the "Sanctuary of the Knife" and the sun sanctuary. The complex is surrounded by a large circular wall.

Exploration

Limestone statue of Raneferef from the columned hall of the mortuary temple

The building was first noticed during the early archaeological studies of the necropolis of Abusir, but was not examined intensively. John Shae Perring (1837–1839) as well as later Karl Richard Lepsius (1842–1846), Jacques de Morgan (1890s) and Ludwig Borchardt (early 20th century) gave minimal attention to the building. Lepsius categorized the ruins under the name of Lepsius XXVI in his pyramid list.

A definitive assignment of the pyramid stump was at that time not possible. Some researchers attributed it to Raneferef, others to Shepseskare, and others left the question of the authorship open. At that time it was unanimously decided that the early demolition excluded the theory of a funeral and consequently a mortuary cult.

An intensive research of the remains began in 1974, by the Czech team of Charles University in Prague. These studies, headed by Miroslav Verner, brought a variety of insights. The most important was the fact that the unfinished pyramid served as the king's tomb, which was proven especially through the discovery of mummy remnants. Papyri were found in the ruins of the funerary temple in the temple archives as well as statues depicting the pharaoh, a proof that the building was definitely owned by Raneferef. The study of the ruins offered a deeper insight to the engineering of pyramids in the 5th Dynasty, as the whole core masonry of the first steps was visible. This debunked Lepsius' and Borchardt's suggested theory of a structure of the slightly inward-inclined bowls with horizontal masonry.

Building conditions

The location of the Pyramid of Raneferef in Abusir. The red line shows the direction of the corners towards Heliopolis

Raneferef began his short rule with the construction of the pyramid complex, the nTri bAw nfrf ra (Divine is Neferefre's Power), in the necropolis of Abusir, directly south-west of the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai and west of the pyramid of Khentkaus II. The pyramid is situated at the southern end of the necropolis and is the farthest into the desert of all pyramids of Abusir.

The location was chosen to satisfy the alignment of the north-west corner of the three oldest king pyramids in this area – the Pyramid of Raneferef, the Pyramid of Neferirkare and the Pyramid of Sahure − on the same line, which possibly referred to the obelisk of the sun sanctuary in Heliopolis. A similar orientation towards Heliopolis existed at the southern corners of the Giza Necropolis.

The premature death of the king after a reign of only five years (from 2460 to 2455 BC) led to the demolition of the construction works and to hasty conversion of the complex into a burial and cult ground in the shape of a square mastaba. His successors completed the cult places and the complex, but not the pyramid. According to papyri in the temple, the pyramid is a "hill".

Plunderings and stone robberies

View on the pyramid basis and the ruins of the funerary temple

The building was looted and damaged by stone robbery, common for pyramid complexes. The unfinished form with the flat roof offered looters a simple entry, as they could dig into the substructure from its easily accessible top. The stone robbery and the lootings were apparently professionally organized, as residues were found of a workshop in the pyramid. This phenomenon possibly began as early as the First Intermediate Period and stone theft followed in the late New Kingdom, the Late Period, the reign by the Roman Empire and the Arabic Middle Ages right through the 19th century. Materials stolen from the pyramid complex could be found in nearby shaft tombs. The temple area remained comparatively unaffected, as it was mainly composed of less valuable adobes.

Pyramid

High-angle perspective on the structure of the first core step of the pyramid
A: External wall
B: Internal wall
C: Stepping fill
D: Pit for the underground chambers
E: Pit for entry

The Pyramid of Raneferef was started with a base length of 65 metres (213 ft) and thus could have been the second-smallest king pyramid in the Old Kingdom of Egypt after the Pyramid of Unas. The planned height and side tilt are unknown, as the casing stones were never attached. The pyramid should have received a stepped core, covered by fine Tura limestones, but construction did not continue above the first step.

Structure

The pyramid was not directly built on bedrock, but rather on a foundation made of large limestone blocks. These were cut from the local bedrock while excavating a pit at the pyramid's center. This pit was to receive the essential substructures (most notably the burial chamber), a construction technique common to all 5th dynasty pyramids.

The core layer of the pyramid comprises an exterior wall made of huge roughly-hewn limestone blocks, some up to 5 metres (16 ft) long, 1 metre (3.3 ft) wide and 1 metre (3.3 ft) deep, which formed the extent of the step in two rows. The pit for the burial chamber and the entrance were covered with a similar wall built from smaller blocks. This strategy allowed workers to work simultaneously on the foundation and on the first step of the pyramid. The height of the blocks, which were laid in horizontal layers, was about 1 metre (3.3 ft). Interspaces were filled with clay mortar. Apparently, the placement of the blocks was more careful in the corners than on the edges. The interior of the steps was filled with gravel, sand and mud. This offered a considerable saving of labor compared to the large and more accurately hewn limestone cores of 4th Dynasty pyramids, but made the core very sensitive to erosion. In fact, this construction technique is responsible for the ruinous state of all 5th and 6th Dynasty pyramids.^[9]

The death of the pharaoh led to a stop in the construction works and design alterations were made to use the building for the funeral. The first step, about 7 metres (23 ft) high, received a cladding from rough limestones with a side slope of 78°, similar to a mastaba. This was covered with a layer of clay, in which flints from the local desert were pressed. The term "hill" (iat), found in the Abusir Papyri, might be connected with the primary hill myth.

Substructure

High-angle perspective on the substructure of the pyramid
A: Entry with north chapel
B: Access passage
C: Antechamber
D: Burial chamber

The foundation of the pyramid was laid out in an open ditch. The ditch had an encircling wall, which extended to the first step of the pyramid and allowed simultaneous work on the foundation and the structure. The foundation was built in the same pattern as the Pyramid of Sahure. Access led from the north side of the pyramid downwards to the south direction and led to a slightly north-deviated horizontal passage. The lower area was faced with rose granite and had a portcullis slab barrier from the same material. Unusual and not verified in any other building was a further blocking device from jawlike, intertwined barriers in the centre of the horizontal passage. The burial chamber and the antechamber were as usual oriented east-to-west and faced with a pediment ceiling from fine limestone and a chamber cladding from the same material. Cladding as well as pediment ceiling were heavily damaged through stone robbery. Today, only single fragments of the foundation in the pit exist.

Despite the devastation, the Czech group found the funerary goods and even the king's mummy, all in the substructure. In the burial chamber was a sarcophagus from rose granite, of which only a few fragments were preserved. Also found were fragments from the four canopic jarsfrom alabaster and sacrifice jars from the same material.

In all probability the mummified remains of the roughly 20- to 25-year-old ruler belong – according to analysis of the archeological circumstances of finding and the anthropological study – to Pharaoh Raneferef.

Pyramid complex

Reconstructions of the complex after the conversion from the pyramid to a mastaba and the completion of the ritual structures
A: Pyramid stump     B: Interior temple     C: Stack-room
D: Funery temple     E: Entry of the temple
F: Gallery     G: Sanctuary of the Knife    H: Stockade

Elements such as the causeway, the valley temple and the cult pyramid are missing due to discontinuation of the building work upon the king's premature death. Only buildings which were important for the burial and funerary cult were accomplished by his successor, then, unusually, expanded by the latter's successor.

Mortuary temple

The small, possibly improvised temple on the eastside of the pyramid was constructed in the first building phase of the mortuary temple. The limestone temple has a north-south orientation. A step ramp enables entry from the southeast. This temple had a mandatory offering hall as well as a room for the ritual purgation on the entry. Imprints of an altar were at that time verifiable. A false door was located on the west wall, which contained gold-plated inscriptions. Offerings such as a bull head and sacrificial vessels were found below the paving of the temple. There might have been two boat pits at the temple for worship boats. No evidence was found in the remains for the builder, thus the direct successor of Raneferef is unknown. It is believed that short-ruling Shepseskare was the successor, as seal impressions of him were found in the area of the mortuary temple.

The temple complex was heavily extended in the second phase under Pharaoh Niuserre. Compared to the initial temple, the building material was, with a few exceptions, mud brick. This new temple area also had a north-southern direction, but extended over the whole length of the eastside of the truncated pyramid and encompassed the initial temple. The northern third of the new building contained two-storeyed storerooms. The middle part featured an entrance portico with two pillars and behind five oblong rooms, which are more reminiscent of storerooms than of the usual statue chapels. One chamber was later breached as an entry to the inner temple, while another chamber was sealed and incorporated the fire-damaged remniscents of the two worship boats. The storage area also housed the temple archive, as there was no valley temple in this complex.^[9] The southern temple area is only found in this pyramid complex. It had a large hall, surrounded by twenty wooden lotus pillars. The roof was decorated with golden stars on a dark-blue heaven. This area included fragments of ruler statues, worship items and wooden statuettes of prisoners of war.

A third construction period also under Niuserre extended the temple to an eastern entry area and gave it the period's typical T-shaped arrangement. Here, the building material was also mainly mud brick. This expansion included a monumental entry decorated with two papyrus columns from limestone, an entry hall and a subsequent open column court with 22 wooden round columns.

During the rule of Djedkare, the priests of the mortuary cult built simple brick accommodations in the column court. The ruler cult of Raneferef was performed until the end of the 6th Dynasty, but went defunct in the following turmoils after the end of this dynasty. A short-lived revival of the cult took place in the 12th Dynasty.

Sanctuary of the Knife

The so-called "Sanctuary of the Knife" was built outside the enclosure wall east of the southern temple section and south of the future entry leaves constructed in the second building phase. It was a ritual slaughterhouse for sacrificial animals for the ruler cult. The function and the description of the sanctuary is verified through papyri in the mortuary temple of Neferirkare. The building was constructed from mud brick and its external wall had round corners. The northern part of the sanctuary included an open slaughterhouse as well as in the north-east corner a realm for dissection of animals and conservation of meat. The middle and southern part of the building occupied the warehouse for the storage of meat. The meat was possibly dried in the roof terrace. According to the Abusir papyri, 130 bulls were sacrificed in this sanctuary during a ten-day feast.

The Sanctuary of the Knife lost its function in the third building period and was then used as a storage room, until it was destroyed in the first half of the 6th Dynasty.

Circular wall

The circular wall of the complex was composed of a massive adobe wall, with corners consolidated with limestone blocks. A part of the court in the north-western corner was sectioned. The purpose of this separation is unknown.

Sun sanctuary

In addition to the pyramid complex, Raneferef established a sun temple by the name of hetep re ("Re's offering table"), according to inscriptions and cylinder seals. It is assumed that it is located somewhere near Abusir, although no remnants of it have been found to date. After Raneferef's death, the sun temple of Niuserre may have been built over that of Raneferef.

Ancient Goldsmith's Tomb Filled with Mummies Discovered in Luxor

A 3,500-year-old tomb that was originally built for a goldsmith named Amenemhat and his wife has been discovered at the cemetery of Dra' Abu el-Naga in Luxor.Credit: Egyptian antiquities ministry

A 3,500-year-old tomb built for a goldsmith named Amenemhat and his wife Amenhotep has been discovered at the ancient cemetery of Dra' Abu el-Naga in Luxor, the Egyptian antiquities ministry announced today (Sept. 9) at a news conference in Luxor.

Inside the tomb were the remains of several mummies, wooden coffins, skeletal remains, pottery and small statues, according to photos released by the ministry. Jewelry and shabti figurines — which did the work of the deceased in the afterlife — were also found in the tomb, officials said. [See Photos of the Excavation and Goldsmith's Tomb]

Hieroglyphic inscriptions found inside the tomb reveal that it was originally built for a man named Amenemhat, who was a goldsmith. The inscriptions say that his wife was named Amenhotep, a name typically used in ancient Egypt for a man, officials said. However, the inscriptions said that Amenhotep held the title "lady of the house." It's unclear why Amenhotep had a name usually used for men in ancient Egypt.

The couple lived in the 15th century B.C., during the 18th dynasty, which is part of a period in Egypt's history that modern-day scholars call the New Kingdom, Khaled El-Enany, Egypt's antiquities minister, said during the news conference. During the New Kingdom, Egypt was united under a single pharaoh, and Egypt's power was on the rise.

The tomb was later reused during the 11th and 10th centuries B.C., during the 21st and 22nd dynasties, a time that modern-day scholars call the Third Intermediate Period, El-Enany said during the news conference. Egypt was not always united during the Third Intermediate Period, and at times, part of the country was ruled by Libyan groups.

Excavations inside the tomb are ongoing, and more discoveries will likely be announced in the next month, El-Enany said.

The tomb was discovered by an Egyptian antiquities ministry team led by Mostafa Waziri, the head of the ministry's Luxor department. In April, Waziri's team discovered the tomb of a judge at Dra' Abu el-Naga; Waziri believes that four more tombs will be found close to where the goldsmith's tomb is located, he said during the news conference. "If we keep digging, we'll find four more tombs in the area," Waziri said, adding, "Wish us luck."

Amenemhat's tomb is the second tomb belonging to an Egyptian goldsmith that has been found so far this year. In June, Live Science reported that another tomb belonging to an Egyptian goldsmith had been discovered on Sai Island, in what is now Sudan.

New Tomb in Luxor Kampp 390

Antiquities Minister announces, 2017 to be, "The Year of Discoveries"

The opening of tomb Kampp 390 took place this morning in Dra abu el Naga at 10:00. An introduction in Arabic, English and French was given by Minister of Antiquities Dr. Mohamed Khalil. The Minister called 2017, "The Year of Excavations, the Year of Discoveries," and hinted that this was only the beginning, and that more tombs might be found in the area.

Further details about the present discovery were provided by Dr. Mostafa Waziri, head of Luxor Antiquities, and director of the mission. Dr. Waziri congratulated the team of Egyptian workmen, led by Reis Ali Farouk, who discovered the tomb five months ago. "They continued working in the blazing heat and over the holiday to bring the find to light," he said.

The 18th Dynasty tomb is located at almost the highest level of the Theban Necropolis which contains seven cemeteries, the burial places for the nobility who served the King.

For the occasion of the packed opening, a number of cases containing local finds were displayed; these included cartonnage mummy-cases, a substantial amount of almost-intact pottery vessels, a wooden coffin with a mummy, and funerary cones, and many shabtis constructed from different materials.


The tomb was known and numbered by Dr. Frederika Kamp in her survey of Theban Tombs late in the past century, but it was apparently not excavated. The tomb owner is one Amenemhat, a goldsmith; a son and wife (Lady of the House) are mentioned in the inscriptions as well as man called Mehi, who could be a relative. Their tombs are not known, but antiquities officials are optimistic that they might be discovered nearby.

The tomb's layout is unusual, as a boating scene (men unloading very large pottery storage jars), normally located on the interior walls, is, in this case, painted on the east reveal of the doorway. However, the door jamb is in place, so in its final stage of construction this was definitely meant to be the entrance to the tomb. The artwork is obviously that of a master painter, indicating that the tomb owner must have been a favorite of the Pharaoh.

Also found in the tomb were a stele and a pair statue.

The tomb is on two levels, with an offering-chapel on the first level and the burial chamber much lower down. It is not yet open for tourists.

I was very lucky to get this report, Lyla had offered to take me with her but due to my stupid inability to stand this was not an option she then volunteered to give me a report from the scene. So nice of her.

The Dra Abu Naga area is a fascinating one, it is the location of the tomb of Roy one of my favourite nobles tombs, very small but exquisite. It is in a direct line and has wonderful views of Karnak temple and was popular with people that worked at the temple. It was also overlooking the route of the Beautiful Feast of the Valley. So quite a prestigious location.