Lecture: The sacred Djed pillar

Featured image: A scene on the west wall of the Osiris Hall that is situated beyond the seven chapels and entered via the Osiris Chapel. It shows the raising of the Djed pillar. (Wikimedia)

Hieroglyphics play an important role in understanding ancient Egyptian culture. One of the most commonly found and mysterious hieroglyphic symbols is known as the djed symbol. With the appearance of a pillar and three or more cross bars, there have been several theories as to the meaning of this enigmatic symbol, and what it represented to the ancient Egyptians who used it so frequently.

The djed symbol has the appearance of a vertical shaft or pillar. It usually had four horizontal bars near the top, with a series of vertical lines between each bar. It also had four bands around the neck of the shaft, beneath the first of the horizontal bars. Sometimes it is topped with a capital.

A djed pillar (center) on a glazed steatite pectoral (1070 – 703 BC). (Wikimedia)

Many believe the djed is a symbol of the god Osiris, specifically, his spine. According to Egyptian mythology, Osiris was the god of the afterlife. While visiting Set, the god of disorder, desert, storms, and violence, Osiris was tricked into climbing into a coffin that was built exactly to his size. He was quickly suffocated, and the coffin was cast into the Nile. Eventually, the coffin washed up on the shores of Byblos, in Syria. A sacred tree grew rapidly around the coffin, encasing the coffin within its trunk. The king of the land, unaware of the presence of the coffin, was in awe of the tree’s quick growth, and he ordered it cut down to become a pillar in his palace. All the while, Osiris’ wife Isis had been searching for him. She came to learn that his body was contained inside the pillar. She became close with the king and queen, and when they granted her a boon, she requested the pillar. Upon being granted the pillar, she removed Osiris’ body, and consecrated the pillar. It has since been called the pillar of the djed.

The sun disk of the god Ra is raised into the sky by an ankh-sign (signifying life) and a djed-pillar (signifying stability and the god Osiris) while adored by Isis, Nephthys, and baboons. The motif symbolizes rebirth and the sunrise. (Wikimedia)

According to others, the djed is a fertility pillar made from or surrounded by reeds, trees, or sheaves. As Egypt was a treeless land, this may represent the importance of the trees that were imported from Syria. This also ties in with the story of Osiris, where his body was encased within the trunk of a tree. Other accounts associate the djed with the falcon god of the Memphite necropolis, Seker, then with the Memphite patron god of craftsmen Ptah. Ptah is sometimes referred to as “the noble djed.” The djed symbol is also sometimes viewed as a pillar supporting the sky. In a palace, the pillars may surround a window, and when viewed from the right angle, it appears that the pillars are supporting the sky.

Stucco relief of Ptah holding a staff that bears the combined ankh and djed symbols. Late Period or Ptolemaic Dynasty, 4th to 3rd century BC. (Wikipedia)

The djed symbol is also used in a ceremony called “raising the djed.” This ceremony is meant to represent Osiris’ triumph over Set. During the ceremony, the pharaoh uses ropes to raise a pillar, with the assistance of priests. This coincided with the time of year when the agricultural year began and fields were sown. This was just one part of a 17-day holiday of festivals dedicated to Osiris. Overall, the raising the djed ceremony represented both the resurrection of Osiris, and the strength and stability of the monarch.

Raising the Djed pillar, Temple of Seti I, Abydos, Egypt (Wikimedia)

The djed has also been used as an amulet, placed near the spines of mummified bodies, and the image painted on their coffin. The amulet was intended to allow the deceased to live eternally, and to ensure their resurrection. The Egyptian Book of the Dead contains a spell that would be spoken as the amulet was placed on the mummy, in hopes that it would allow the deceased to sit up and regain use of their spine. In addition, it was often seen in hieroglyphic inscriptions and even as part of architectural structures. Its ubiquitous appearance gives the impression that this symbol was both important and sacred in ancient Egyptian belief systems.

The djed symbol seen in hieroglyphic inscription at Deir el-Bahri. Credit: Kyera Giannini / flickr

The Egyptian god Hu

The Egyptian god Hu was one of the minor gods in some respects, but he was one of the most important gods for those serious about Egyptian deities. Hu is the power of the spoken word. He personifies the authority of utterance.

One legend has it that the creator and Sun God, Re (Ra), evolved from the primeval waters of Egypt. Once alive, Re created the air (Shu) and the moisture (Tefnut). Next, the earth god, Geb and the sky goddess, Nut were created. Mortal men and women were created from the tears of Re. Re then drew blood from his own penis and created the gods Hu and Sia. These two gods represented the creative power of the gods.

Hu and Sia were partners. Sia was the personification of Divine Knowledge/Omniscience, the mind of the gods. Hu was the personification of Divine Utterance, the voice of authority. During Ancient times, Heka, the personification of Divine Power accompanied these two gods. Together, the three gods were very important to the rulers of Ancient Egypt. Along with the falcon-headed Sun God, they rode the Sunboat across the sky in order to create and sustain all life.

The act of the Sunboat traveling across the sky signifies that with each sunrise the world was created anew. Having traveled through the Underworld of night and making it past all the dangers therein, the Sunboat once again rises to confirm that life is created new each day.

Hu was particularly important because he was the epitome of the power and command of the ruler. Even after death, Hu was of the utmost importance to the Kings of Ancient Egypt. Hu acted as the Kings companion as the King entered the Afterlife. Through Hu, the King maintained his royal authority in the Afterlife. Hu allowed the King to cross the waters of his canal and acknowledged the Kings authority and supremacy.

So far, we know Hu as the personification of Divine Utterance. However, some legends maintain that he was not just a part of creation, but that he was the creator. It is said that as Hu drew his first breath, there was in that sound the essence of his name. Hence, we have the name Hu, which sounds remarkably like the sound of an expelling breath.

With each breath Hu expelled, creation took place. The first breath created the Soul of Osiris. His last creation was the Sun. So it is said that Hu is the Word of God, the first and the last breaths, Hu Hu.

The Ancient Egyptians recognized the Sphinx at the Giza Plateau as an image of Hu. The lion was a symbol of power and strength. Used as the body of the Sphinx, this was perfectly acceptable to the Ancient Egyptians. The face of the Sphinx wore the distinctive Red Crown of the Creator and the Osiris Beard. These were hallmarks of the time.

Its been suggested that Ancient Egyptians would use the Sphinx in a ritual that reenacted the creation of the Universe. It was performed at dusk, as night was falling upon Egypt. This was considered the time before creation begun, when Hu (the Sphinx) sat silent.

When the signal was given, the sound of the first word of creation filled the air, as people made the sound they recognized as that breath, Hhhhoooooooo.

This word, the Word of God, would be chanted all through the night symbolizing the night of progressive creating. The final act of the ritual came at sunrise. As the sun rose out of the East, the last breath of Hu was recognized.

Sri Harold Klemp, Spiritual Leader of Eckankar, notes, Hu is the ancient name of God, a love song to God. When Soul has heard this sound, Soul yearns to go home.

Eckankar uses the singing of Hus name as a spiritual connection to the Heart of God. They sing the name Hu to draw closer to the Divine Being. For the people who follow this faith, the desires are reported to be love, freedom, wisdom, and truth.

Eckankar teaches, A spiritual essence, the Light and Sound, connects everyone with the Heart of God. This Light and Sound is the ECK, or Holy Spirit. Direct Aspects of God opens the deep spiritual potential within each of us. The Light and Sound purify, uplift, and direct us on our journey to home.

The Egyptian Book of the Dead, The Papyrus of Ani, mentions the ceremonies of Hu and Sa. One can only speculate as to the nature of such rituals and ceremonies. Could they be talking about the ancient ritual involving the Sphinx?

Hu may be considered a minor god in some ways, but its obvious that Hu was a not-so-minor god to most Ancient Egyptians.

New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC)

• This period is characterized by Egypt's military involvement and expansion in Syria and Palestine 
• In Arts, monumental temples were erected in Thebes and Upper Egypt 
• Amun High Priests and military leaders gained enormous power, which in the end challenged the pharaonic rule, and led to the collapse of the State and the division of the country

18th Dynasty (1550-1292 BC)

• Ahmose expelled the Hyksos
• Capital city in Thebes
• Thutmose 3 began the age of conquest - Egypt became a world power.
• The Amarna revolution by Akhenaten - worship of Aten and Capital city moved to Akhetaten
• Theban counter-revolution - Religion restored
• Horemheb appointed his military commander Ramses 1 as heir, who founded the 19th Dynasty
• Pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty
  • Ahmose 11550-1526 BC
  • Amenhotep 11526-1506 BC
  • Thutmose 11506-1493 BC
  • Thutmose 21493-1479 BC
  • Hatshepsut1479-1458 BC
  • Thutmose 31458-1425 BC
  • Amenhotep 21425-1401 BC
  • Thutmose 41401-1390 BC
  • Amenhotep 31390-1350 BC
  • Akhenaten1350-1334 BC
  • Nefertiti1336-1334 BC
  • Tutankhamen1334-1325 BC
  • Ay1325-1320 BC
  • Horemheb1320-1292 BC

19th Dynasty (1292-1187 BC)

• Ramses 1 moved the capital city to Avaris (Pi-Ramesse) and the cult of Seth regained importance
• Seti 1 recaptured territories lost under Akhenaten.
• Ramses 2 fought in Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC
• Ramses 2 signed peace treaty with Hittites in 1258 BC
• Construction of monumental temples
• Merenptah moved the Capital city to Memphis
• When Merenptah died both his sons Seti 2 and Amenmesse (the Biblical Moses) contended for the throne
• Setnakhte the Exodus Pharaoh expelled the Asiatics and founded the 20th Dynasty
• Amenmesse (Moses) founded the new Hebrew religion?, based on the cult of Amun while demonizing the cult of Seth which was embraced by his enemies
• Pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty
  • Ramses 11292-1290 BC
  • Seti 11290-1279 BC
  • Ramses 21279-1213 BC
  • Merenptah1213-1203 BC
  • Seti 21203-1197 BC
  • AmenmesseMoses? 1203-1200 BC
  • Siptah1197-1191 BC
  • Tawosret and Bay1191-1190 BC

20th Dynasty (1190-1069 BC)

• Capital city moved back to Avaris (Pi-Ramesse)
• Ramses 3 repulses invasion of "Sea People" and Libyan invasions. He is considered the last great Egyptian Pharaoh.
• Famine due to Hekla Eruption, civil unrest and official corruption, started at the end of Ramses 3 reign
• After Ramses 3 the empire began to disintegrate
• Systematic robbing of royal tombs especially in the reigns of Ramses 9 and Ramses 11.
• During the reign of Ramses 11 the High Priest of Amun at Thebes became the effective ruler of Upper Egypt
• Pharaohs of the 20th Dynasty
  • SetnakhteExodus? 1190-1186 BC
  • Ramses 31186-1155 BC
  • Ramses 41155-1149 BC
  • Ramses 51149-1145 BC
  • Ramses 61145-1137 BC
  • Ramses 71137-1130 BC
  • Ramses 81130-1129 BC
  • Ramses 9
    1129-1111 BC
  • Ramses 10
    1111-1097 BC
  • Ramses 11
    1097-1078 BC

Maat: The Ancient Egyptian Goddess of Truth, Justice and Morality

Maat, also known as Ma’at or Mayet, was a female goddess in the ancient Egyptian religion who represented truth, justice, balance and morality. The daughter of the Egyptian sun deity Ra and wife of the moon god Thoth, she served a kind of spirit of justice to the Egyptians. She decided whether a person would successfully reach the afterlife, by weighing their soul against her feather of truth, and was the personification of the cosmic order and a representation of the stability of the universe. The earliest writings where she is mentioned date back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt more than 2,300 years ago.

The Egyptian culture was centered on order, everything had its due place in the world. This included religion, society and seasonal changes. The goddesses Ma’at came to represent the concept of balance and order because many Egyptians needed to explain the world around them. She was the one that kept the stars in motion, the seasons changing and the maintaining of the order of Heaven and Earth. The opposing force of this was known in ancient terms as “isfet” or chaos. Ancient Egyptians considered the desert beyond the Nile River to be chaotic; whereas, the area close to the Nile was considered orderly. Together, these two forces brought balance to the world in which they lived and was an important part of everyday Egyptian life.

Ma'at is usually depicted in the form of a woman seated or standing with outstretched wings attached to both her arms. In other instances she is seen holding a scepter in one hand and an ankh (the symbol of life) in the other. Her statue was a stone platform depicting a stable foundation on which order was built. A common symbol associated with her is an ostrich feather, which she is almost always shown as wearing in her hair. Often, the Feather of Ma'at was a distinctive feature of her headdress. Less frequently images of the goddess showed her without a head, instead replaced by the feather. In other images the feather alone conveyed her presence. This feather has come to symbolize her being, as well as the representation of balance and order, it became a hieroglyph for "truth."

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Ma’at was associated with the law in ancient Egypt. From the 5th dynasty (c. 2510-2370 BC) onwards, the Vizier responsible for justice was called the Priest of Maat and in later periods judges wore images of her. The 'Spirit of Maat' was embodied by the chief judge in charge of the Egyptian law courts. He had a dual role, serving as both a priest and working directly in the law courts and justice system. The "Priest of Ma’at" began court hearings whilst wearing the feather of Ma’at and all other court officials wore small golden images of the goddess as a sign of their judicial authority, also as a symbol that their judgement would be balanced and fair. Priests drew the Feather of Ma’at on their tongues with green dye, so that the words they spoke were truth. The priest would rule on the earthly punishment according to the nature of the law that had been broken. Punishments included imposing fines, corporal punishment and in extreme cases capital punishment. It was considered a crime against Ma’at if a person engaged in jealousy, dishonesty, gluttony, laziness, injustice, and ungratefulness. The guilty Egyptian was deemed to have violated the Spirit of Ma’at and would face a further judgment in the Underworld during the ceremony of justification in the Hall of the Two Truths. The 'Spirit of Ma'at' detailed in the wisdom literature contained practical guidance with examples and some rules applied in previous law cases. These kinds of instructional texts have been described as "Ma’at Literature".

The Book of the Dead is a collection of funerary texts and spells from ancient Egypt designed to assist a person's journey through the underworld, into the afterlife. Without these spells, it was believed a person could not proceed. In the book is a spell called the “Forty-Two Declarations of Purity” or the “Negative Confessions”. This spell is comprised of confessions the tomb owner believed he committed throughout his life. It was believed that any crimes committed against Ma’at should be written down as they could easily be forgiven. In the Hall of Ma’at is where the judgement of the dead was performed in which Ma’at played an important role. The ceremony, called the “Judgment of Osiris,” was named after Osiris, the god of the dead. When the dead were judged, it was the feather of Ma'at that their hearts were weighed against. If a balanced scale was struck, the deceased was deemed worthy to meet Osiris in Paradise. The weightlessness of their hearts indicated that their souls were not burdened with sin and evil. If the heart of the deceased was found to be heavier than the feather of Ma’at, it would be devoured by Ammit, the soul-eating monster depicted with the head of a crocodile, the forequarters of a lion and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus. Other gods in the judgement hall who were part of the tribunal overseeing the weighing of the heart were also pictured holding a feather but the scales always represented Ma ́at.

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Ancient Egyptians worshipped many gods, one was certainly Ma’at, although Egyptian archaeologists now believe she was perhaps more of a concept or an ideal. It’s reasonable to assume her principles aided the people of Egypt in being better individuals and that she could be compared to the conscience of a person. There was a small temple dedicated to Ma’at by Hatshepsut, the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, Egypt’s first female pharaoh, at the Karnak temple complex in Luxor Egypt. Largely in ruins, it still preserves inscriptions of some of the viziers of Ramesses III and XI. A previous Ma’at temple existed in this area, indicated by reliefs and stelae belonging to the reign of Amenhotep III. The temple is inside the Precinct of Montu, the smallest of three enclosures at Ipet-Isut.

The Graeco-Roman Period: The Hellenists

Macedonian Kings

Alexander the Great occupied Syria and, after a long and successful siege of the Phoenician town Tyre, entered Egypt in 332 BCE, where he was accepted as pharaoh.

Alexander the Great

He visited the famous Libyan oracle of Amen at the Siwa Oasis. The oracle declared him to be Amen's son (two Greek oracles had confirmed him as son of Zeus, the Greek counterpart of Amen) . He may have been crowned at Memphis. Alexander reorganized Egypt, founded Alexandria in the western Delta (331), and left the country in the hands of Balacrus and Peucestas, who were well disposed and respectful towards the Egyptian religious institutions. Cleomenes was appointed satrap and headed the civil administration.

In 331 Alexander crossed the Eastern Desert, the Euphrates and Tigris rivers into Persia. He died in 323 and, as son of Amen, was portrayed by the Egyptians with the god's horns. He died in 323 BCE.

Alexander's brother was raised to the throne by the army in 323. He was killed by Olympias in 317. Alexander's son by the Persian Roxanne, Alexander Aegus reigned nominally from 317 to 311 BCE. He was only about thirteen years old, when he was murdered by Cassander who later became king of Macedonia.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty

Ptolemy I, (ruled 323-284 BCE), created the political and military foundations of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt (305-30 BCE). With the death of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy, one of the leading Macedonian generals, became satrap of Egypt and served under Philip Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV (murdered in 311 BCE). Another of Alexander's generals, Perdiccas, challenged his rule in 321, but was defeated and fed to the crocodiles. In 318 Ptolemy conquered Coele-Syria which included Judea, but lost it in the year 314 to Antigonus who was in control of the Asian territories.

In 311 Ptolemy erected the Satrap stela

I, Ptolemy the satrap, I restore to Horus, the avenger of his father, the lord of Pe and Buto, the lady of Pe and Dep, the land of Patanut, from this day and for ever, with all its villages, all its towns, all its inhabitants, all its fields.

In 305 he declared himself king and thus confirmed his independence from the Macedonian royal house. Three years later he abrogated a treaty in which he had ceded Syria to Antigonus and retook that country. The region remained in dispute and was fought over for generations to come.

Ptolemy extended his own might by strengthening Egypt's political and economic power. Much of the traditional Egyptian sphere of influence, Cyrene in Africa, Phoenicia and Palestine in Asia and Cyprus were more or less firmly in his control. Trade with the Mediterranean, East Africa, Arabia and India was developed to his great advantage.

Despite the prosperity they enjoyed, his Egyptian subjects were restless, as Ptolemy relied heavily on Hellenes in governing the country and officering the army, paying them out of a royal treasury filled through taxes and monopolies and settling them on retirement all over Egypt. Under the Ptolemies Egypt moved from an economy which was largely based on barter to a system where money - exclusively coined by the pharaonic administration - played an important role. The banks which developed were partially under government control.

Ptolemy was worshipped as pharaohs had traditionally been, and he was careful to foster the worship of the ancient gods and of Graecised Egyptian gods like Serapis. He made Alexandria his capital and founded his great library and museum there. He abdicated in favour of his son Ptolemy in 284 BCE after a co-regency of three years.Decree of the satrap Ptolemy Lagides

Ptolemy II 

Ptolemy II Philadelphus, (reigned 284-246 BCE), married to his full sister, Asinoe II, and sharing power with her, continued the reorganisation of Egypt, basing his decisions on facts gathered during extensive censuses. A unified administration over the whole country was introduced, with special importance given to financial and economic matters. The bureaucracy was hierarchical down to village level, but the various branches of administration were not strictly separate. Both Greeks and Egyptians were employed, but the top posts were regularly given to Greeks or Hellenized Egyptians.

Philadelphus invested great efforts in the improvement of agriculture by introducing new crops, most importantly a new kind of naked wheat, and advancing irrigation in previously marginal areas such as the Fayum around Lake Moeris. He re-excavated the canal connecting the Nile and the Red Sea, which was to enhance the status of Egypt in East Africa and Arabia and added to the country's prosperity.

He held on to most of the territories conquered by his father, though his control was tenuous at times. Nubia came under his partial domination and the Arabian peninsula was part of his sphere of influence. He sought diplomatic relations with Rome. His was succeeded by his son, Ptolemy III Euergetes.The Great Mendes Stela

Ptolemy III, (280-221 BCE, reigned 246-221) acquired Cyrene by marriage and campaigned successfully against the Seleucids, following the murder of his sister Berenice, who had been married to Antiochus II [2]. Some of the territories conquered during this campaign were later lost. He captured statues of Egyptian deities taken by the Persians and returned them to Egypt.

He was a strong supporter of the temples, rebuilding the Horus temple at Edfu and bestowing benefices on the temples in his Canopus decree (238 BCE). He reformed the calendar adding a leap day every fourth year. After a prosperous reign he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy IV.The Canopus Decree

The Rosetta Stone

Ptolemy IV Philopater, (c.244-205 BCE, reigned 221-205), fought against the Seleucids and won a major victory over them at Rafiah near Gaza. His army consisted both of Greeks and Macedonians and native Egyptian soldiers.

Philopater's reign was a period of unrest: the Egyptians revolted occasionally and the Greeks intrigued continually. Weak, corrupt and easily influenced, Ptolemy had his mother and relatives killed at the urging of his Alexandrian Greek courtiers. The events leading to his own death and his successor's rise to power are unclear, but the courtiers seem to have played a major role. Ptolemy V Epiphanes, c.210-180 BCE was only a child when he succeeded (205 BCE) his father, Ptolemy IV. His reign was threatened by revolts in the southern part of the kingdom, with native Egyptians becoming aware of their own power after the defeat of the Ptolemies at Rafiah. These uprisings seriously undermined his power and by 196, the year of his crowning at Memphis, most of the Ptolemaic possessions outside Egypt had been lost. The Rosetta Stone records the attempts of Epiphanes to pacify his subjects by according the temples many new privileges.

The Rosetta Stone

Hellenist ruler, possibly Ptolemy VI as Greek king and Egyptian pharaoh

During the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor (reigned 180-145) the Seleucid Antiochus IV conquered Egypt in 170, was crowned at Memphis two years later and left the country in the hands of a Syrian governor. But a Roman ambassador, Popillus Laenas, arrived at Antioch and ordered the Seleucid to withdraw from Egypt. Rome also intervened when Philometor was challenged by his brother Euergetes, who was made king of Cyrene (163 BCE), thus practically banishing him from Egypt, until his brother's death.

Allotment of crown lands to soldiers and their rents

Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon, (c.182-116 BC reigned 145-116) had his nephew Ptolemy VII assassinated (145) and shared power with his sister Cleopatra II and her daughter Cleopatra III. He continued the traditional Ptolemaic policy towards the priesthood by showering the temples with gifts. The Greeks saw him as a tyrant and much of his reign was marked by a strife for power, against Cleopatra II from 131 to 130 BCE and against the Greek Alexandrians and others until 118 BCE. This did not prevent him from pursuing an interventionist policy in Syria and holding on to Cyprus and Cyrene with the blessing of Rome.

Apology of the Potter Rome's influence was felt everywhere in the Mediterranean region and the dependence of the Ptolemies on Rome grew ever stronger. Ptolemy IX Apion was the son of Ptolemy VII. He sacked Thebes during the revolt of 88 to 85 BCE and bequeathed Cyrene to Rome.

Ptolemy XII Auletes, (c.112-51 BCE, r.80-51) was the illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX (r. 107-88 BC). He was recognized by Rome in 59 BCE, possibly thanks to the bribes paid to Roman politicians over the years. In 58 he fled to Rome and was restored to power three years later by an army led by Gabinius bought with further bribes.

Cleopatra VII 

Cleopatra VII, daughter of Ptolemy XII (r.51-30) ruled jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy XIII for three years, when they had a falling out which developed into a civil war. The Roman general Pompey, pursued by Julius Caesar, came to Egypt in 48 BCE and was murdered by Ptolemy's courtiers. Caesar sided with Cleopatra, whose lover he became and defeated Ptolemy. He left Egypt for Rome, where Cleopatra followed him with their son Caesarion. After Caesar's murder in 44 she returned to Egypt, had her husband Ptolemy XIV murdered and tried to keep neutral in the Roman civil war.

In the end she had to take sides. In 41 BCE she met Mark Antony at Tarsus and became his mistress. He followed her to Egypt and married her, divorcing Octavian's sister in the process. In 34 Caesarion became co-ruler in an attempt to gain popularity, while Octavian's propaganda described them as rowdy and decadent pleasure seekers. At the sea battle of Actium the Egyptian navy was decisively defeated and Antony and Cleopatra fled to Alexandria. Almost a year later, Octavian conquered Alexandria, Mark Antony committed suicide and Cleopatra, when she failed to come to an agreement with the Romans, did likewise (30 BCE).

Her son, Caesarion (Ptolemy XV), was murdered, and Egypt became an exploited, though mostly prosperous Roman province.

Dynasties XXI to XXXI The rule of the foreigners: Libyans, Ethiopians, Assyrians and Persians

Third Intermediate Period

21st Dynasty , c.1070-945 BCE

Funeral mask of Psusennes

Some time after 1080 BCE - the Tanite Nesbanebded (c.1070 - 1043) still had some control over Upper Egypt - Egypt split between a northern 21st dynasty claiming national recognition reigning from Tanis, and a line of Theban generals and high priests of Amen, who actually controlled the south from Thebes. Relations between the two authorities were peaceful. The Tanites were driven from power by Libyan warriors who established their own Twenty-Second Dynasty.

There was a tradition of representing the high priest as the king's representative: Herihor did not claim royal dignity. During this period they called Renaissance (whm msw.t) Herihor and his successors Pinedjem, Masaharta, and Menkheperre, with the exception of Piankh, all used the title of High Priest of Amen as their principal title. The titles gradually diminished in number, reflecting not so much a reduction in power but an emphasis on their role as the highest authority in the Thebaid and Upper Egypt. The title of High Priest of Amen gave the bearers control over the domains of Amen and at the same time emphasized the fact that they derived their power from Amen.

In the peculiar combinations of royal titles and that of High Priest, it becomes clear that the rulers of Tanis and Thebes only represented an ideal kingship.

22nd Dynasty , c.945-730 BCE

The 22d dynasty (945-730 BCE) was founded by Sheshonq I, probably descended from long-settled Libyan mercenaries, the Meshwesh. He supported Jeroboam against King Solomon's son, Rehoboam and campaigned later in Palestine (ca.930) laying tribute upon the king of Judah. He instituted a decentralized system, with kings based in the north and their sons ruling key centers elsewhere. Rivalries and sporadic civil wars followed, and by the 8th century BCE Egypt had been divided into eleven autonomous states, whose inhabitants depended on congested, walled towns for security. Their increased anxiety found expression in their worship of local rather than national gods.

23rd Dynasty , c.818-715 BCE

The 23rd dynasty was of Libyan origin possibly residing at Tanis, with, according to the various sources based on Manetho, either three kings reigning for 44 years or four kings in power for 89 years. Their sphere of influence was local. There are archaeological remains which can be assigned to the first king, Pedubast I and his successor Osorkon III. Their authority was recognized by the rulers of Thebes.

24th Dynasty , c.727-715 BCE

Another somewhat obscure dynasty, which according to Manetho consisted of Bakenenref who ruled at Sais for 44 or more probably six years. Tefnakhte, his predecessor, is sometimes included as well.

25th Dynasty , 747-656 BCE

Upper Egypt held out long against Ethiopian invaders until being overrun by the armies of Piye (Piankhi), son of Kashta, all the way to Memphis. During this period there was an artistic and cultural revival, such as the restoration of the supremacy of the god Amen. Piye moved north against the coalition of four Egyptian Kings in year 21 of his Nubian reign.

The Stela of Piye

Shabaka succeeded his brother Piye in about 716 BCE, moved his capital from Napata to Thebes and reunited Upper and Lower Egypt, by defeating King Bochchoris (Wahkare Bakenrenef) of Sais and removing all the other kings. He completely subdued the foreign invaders who had settled in the Delta. His was the Golden Age of the Nubian domination of Egypt.

He fought against the Assyrian Empire in Palestine and Syria and was followed by Shebitku and then by Taharka who recognized in 665 BCE his cousin Tanutamun, as his heir and co-regent.

Herodotus on Shabaka
Herodotus on Shebitku

In 674, the first Assyrian attack under Asarhaddon on Egypt foundered at a border fortification, probably Migdol, on the eastern rim of the Delta. On his second campaign (671), Asarhaddon skirted the fortress, and conquered Memphis in just a few days, expelled King Taharka and occupied Lower Egypt. The third campaign was prematurely ended by Asarhaddon's death in 669, and Taharka used the momentary Assyrian weakness to try and reconquer Lower Egypt. He occupied his former capital Memphis, but was defeated by an army hastily sent by Ashurbanipal and retreated to Thebes.

Reinforced by Levantine nobles, an unsuccessful attempt was made to conquer Upper Egypt. On their return a conspiracy against the Assyrian occupiers was uncovered; two of the involved noblemen, Necho and Sharruludari were captured and exiled to Nineveh. Necho received a pardon and was reinstalled at Sais, probably because the Assyrians depended on his support. His son, the later Psammetic I, was given an official position at the same time, stressing the importance the Assyrians attributed to Necho's family.

After Taharka's death in 664, Tanutamun, Taharka's nephew, became ruler of Kush. With his accession he attempted to reconquer Lower Egypt and attacked Memphis, but he did not receive the hoped-for support of the noblemen of the Delta. Ashurbanibal's troops counterattacked, expelled the Kushites from Thebes and plundered the city and the great Amen temple at Karnak, thus ending the 25th Dynasty.

Late Period
26th Dynasty , 664-525 BCE

Egypt regained its independence in 656 BCE under Psammetic I (656-609 BCE) of Libyan origin, founder of the 26th dynasty. Under him the country experienced another golden age. Towards the end of his reign he aided the crumbling Assyrian empire in a vain attempt to contain the rising Babylonians.

The pharaohs of Sais and the Ionians
Social changes in the Late Dynastic Period
Herodotus on Psammetic I

Necho II (609-594 BCE) began and later abandoned the re-excavation of the canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea, rebuilt the fleet, conquered Syria , continued his predecessor's policy of supporting Assyria with an unsuccessful siege of Haran during his first campaign in 609, but was defeated by the king of Babylon, Nebukadrezzar II , (605 BCE, at Karkamesh on the Euphrates), lost Syria and was pursued by the Babylonians to the traditional Egyptian border in Sinai.

Herodotus on Necho II
Herodotus on Psammetic II

Wahibre (Apries) supported unsuccessful Syrian revolts against the Babylonians. In North Africa, Adicran, a Libyan chieftain in Cyrene, turned to Egypt for protection against the Greek colonists. An Egyptian expeditionary army was crushed and in the ensuing revolt Wahibre was toppled in 569.

Herodotus on Wahibre

The last great African Pharaoh, Ahmose II (Amasis, 569-526), was of Libyan ancestry. He came to power with the help of mercenary soldiers, overthrowing King Apries who had been blamed for a military catastrophe in Libya. Under him Egypt enjoyed its last brilliant period. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Ahmose II's reign was prosperous and mainly peaceful: he left many architectural monuments, developed relations with Greece, and married the Greek Ladice of Cyrene.

The Babylonians tried twice to invade Egypt and were repulsed. After a first failed attempt in 601, Nebukadrezzar attacked the Delta in 568 and Ahmose hired Ionian mercenaries who thanks to Marduk were put to flight; but the defense of Egypt was successful.

In an attempt to counterbalance the rising Persian empire Ahmose conquered Cyprus in 560 which Egypt held until its conquest by the Persians in 525.

Many of the best soldiers of Egypt's army deserted to the Ethiopian king at Meroe, and Ahmose was forced to use Libyan and Greek mercenaries against foreign invaders. In spite of being a Philhellene, he restricted the activities of the Greeks to the great city of Naukratis in the Delta southwest of Sais, thus achieving a political equilibrium between Greeks and Egyptians.

Herodotus on Ahmose II
Late Period: Desertion and revolt of a discontented army

A few months after his death, however, his son Psammetic III was deposed when the Persians under King Cambyses II conquered Egypt.

27th Dynasty: 
The Persians , 525-404 BCE

Libya and the Greeks of Cyrene surrendered to Cambyses, but his attempts to enlarge his African possessions were largely unsuccessful. The conquest of the Greek colony at the Siwa oasis failed, when his army died on the march through the desert and his Nubian campaign led only to the establishment of a Persian garrison at Elephantine.

His successor, Darius I, re-excavated the canal connecting the Nile, and thus the Mediterranean, with the Red Sea, promoting trade.

The inscription of Udjahorresne

The Persians ruled Egypt as a satrapy from 525 to 404 BCE, and again from 341 to 333 BCE (31st Dynasty). Much of their reign over Egypt was uneventful, but there were occasionally revolts, such as the rebellion of 486 following a rise in the level of taxation, which was put down by Xerxes.

28th Dynasty, 404-399 BCE

Amyrtaeus of Sais led a revolt against the Persians in 404. Amyrtaeus ruled in the midst of unrest and conspiracy for five years. In 400 he united the country by conquering Upper Egypt.

29th Dynasty, 399-380 BCE

According to Manetho this Mendesian line consisted of four kings, among them Nefaarud and Hakor who are also known from contemporary records. The weakness of the Persian empire prevented it from taking advantage of the unstable political situation in Egypt. Hakor (Achoris, 393-380) employed native Greek mercenaries and rebuilt the Egyptian navy. He formed alliances with other kings threatened by the Persians and repelled a Persian invasion.

30th Dynasty, 380-343 BCE

This line from Sebennytos consisted, according to Manetho, of three kings and ruled for either twenty or thirty-eight years. The founder of the dynasty, the general Nakhtnebef (Nectanebo I, 380-362) ousted the legal heir Nepherites II and withstood a Persian attack on the Delta, suffering heavy casualties. His son Djedhor (Tachos or Teos, 365-360), allied to Chabros and the Spartan Agesilaus, invaded Palestine. But in order to pay his mercenaries he had raised taxes. His cousin Nakhthorheb (Nectanebo II) took advantage of the Egyptian resentment of the taxes and the confiscation of temple property and replaced Djedhor with the support of the priesthood.

The Naukratis decree
31st Dynasty: The second Persian conquest, 343-332 BCE

Another Persian attack was repulsed in 350, but in 343 Artaxerxes III led his army against Pelusium and defeated the Egyptian forces. After the conquest of Egypt Nakhthorheb fled to Nubia. Artaxerxes plundered the country and destroyed fortifications and city walls. The Nubian Khabbash gained control over Egypt after the murder of Artaxerxes (338), but Darius III retook the country in 335.

Despite the frequent changes of political circumstances, the country was often prosperous in the Late Dynastic period. Great temples continued to be built, though they survived poorly. Artisans produced many bronze and stone statues, without introducing new ideas but rather harking back to Egypt's splendid past, copying earlier styles and even specific scenes from temple and tomb reliefs. There was also a quasi-realistic style, especially in statuary; but in this and reliefs softer, rounded contours later became popular.

Dynasties XVIII to XX The reassertion of Egyptian power and the building of an empire

New Kingdom

18th Dynasty

Most pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty acceded while still very young and no reference is made to brothers of the king although in a number of cases certainly more princes were alive at the time of death of their father. These young rulers did not possess much power over the military, the officialdom and the priesthood of Amen. The queen's palace also played an important role. All these parties tried to manipulate the king, who often only served to legitimise the government controlled by one faction or another. Ahmose I (r. c.1570-1546 BCE), was the founder of the 18th dynasty, one of the most outstanding kings in the history of ancient Egypt. His principal achievement was to weaken the Hyksos, who had dominated Lower Egypt for some 300 years, by taking Avaris, their citadel in the north. He pursued them into southern Canaan and laid siege to Sharuhen for three years. On his campaign in Upper Egypt against rebels great slaughter was recorded in all the battles.

Ahmose continued Kamose's expansion into Nubia as far as Buhen (near the second cataract) in an attempt to prevent a recurrence of the incursions of the Kushites, which Upper Egypt had suffered from during the 17th Dynasty. The overseer over these conquered lands became one of the most important people in Egypt and was later given the title of "Son of the King".

The Tempest Stela of Ahmose I
The Donation Stela of Ahmose I

Amenhotep I (Amenophis) was the son of Ahmose I, and ruled from c. 1546 to 1526. He undertook military campaigns in Libya and in Nubia (up to the 3rd cataract) using boats on the Nile to transport his army, and extended the boundaries of his empire by establishing a vice-royalty in Nubia. Thutmose I, (r. c. 1525-1512), husband of the princess Ahmose, continued the expansive policy of his predecessors, appointed Turi vice-roy of Nubia and extended the empire southward deeper into Nubia. At the third cataract he erected a stela on an island proclaiming:

His sword touches both ends of the earth.

Later, while pursuing the retreating Hyksos during his Asian campaigns, he reached the Euphrates and crossed over into Nahrin, the land of the Two Rivers, which belonged to the Mitanni.

In his third year he re-excavated the canals bypassing the first cataract, put down a rebellion and returned with his fleet, with

that wretched Nubian Bowman head downward at the bow of his majesty's ship "Falcon."

He added walls and obelisks to the temple of Amen at Thebes and the axial temple he created was often copied. He was the first king to be buried in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes.The biography of Ahmose, son of Ebana

Thutmose II (r. c.1512-c.1504 BCE) married his half sister Hatshepsut and succeeded his father, Thutmose I. During his reign Thutmose put down Kushite rebellions in Nubia and revolts by bedouins in Canaan and continued temple construction, albeit on a small scale only, at Karnak. Hatshepsut (Hatshepsowe), (died c.1482 BCE) was one of the few women to rule Egypt as a pharaoh. After the death (c.1504) of her husband, Thutmose II, she assumed power, first as regent for his son Thutmose III, and then (c.1503) as pharaoh. She encouraged commercial expansion, sent a trading expedition to Punt and sponsored a major building program overseen by Senenmut; the monuments of her reign include the temple at Deir el-Bahri. Toward the end of her reign she lost influence to Thutmose III who came to be depicted as her equal.

Queen Hatshepsut on the Hyksos


Egypt during the New Kingdom:
The empire under Thutmose III

Thutmose III (c.1504-1450 BCE) was very young when his father, Thutmose II, died and was until 1482 the co-regent of his aunt, Hatshepsut. Some time after he became sole monarch,he tried, for unknown reasons, to erase the memory of Hatshepsut by destroying many of the monuments which bore her name or effigy. From 1482 onwards, he devoted himself to the expansion of the Egyptian empire, leading many campaigns into Canaan, Phoenicia and Syria.

At Megiddo (c.1480) he destroyed a Syrian-Canaanite coalition employing mercenary armies and chariots. On the east bank of the river Euphrates in Nahrin, he defeated the forces of the kingdom of Mitanni, which had been extending its power in the Middle East.

Thutmose expanded his navy and used it to transport his armies swiftly to the Phoenician coast, while in Setet (Nubia) and Kush he extended his rule beyond the fourth cataract.

He set up an efficient administration, both civil and military, and extorted large amounts of tribute from the defeated kings and chiefs. Much of this tribute Thutmose used to build temples at Karnak (the Festival Hall of the temple of Amen), Heliopolis and Abydos.The autobiography of Ahmose Pen-nekhbet, who lived during the reigns of Ahmose I to Thutmose III

The battle of Megiddo
Thutmose's campaign against the Asiatics
Texts from Theban tombs
The Napata (Gebel Barkal) stele
The autobiography of Amenemhab
A fictional account of the taking of Joppa by Djehuti

Amenhotep II, the 7th king of the 18th dynasty, son of Thutmose III, ruled Egypt from c.1450 to 1425 BCE. He continued the military exploits of his father, particularly in Syria, where he crushed an uprising and demanded oaths of loyalty from local rulers. His mummy was discovered in the Valley of the Kings.The Asiatic campaigns of Amenhotep II

Thutmose IV campaigned in Nubia and Retenu. He concluded a treaty with the Babylonians and entered into an alliance with the Mitanni by marrying Artatama's daughter.

Amenhotep III ruled (c.1417-1379 BCE) Egypt at the height of its power. His extensive diplomatic contacts with other Near Eastern states, especially Mitanni and Babylonia, are revealed in the Amarna tablets. Of the great temple he built near Thebes, only two statues, the so-called colossi of Memnon, remain. Amenhotep's wife Tiye, a woman of non-royal birth, was prominently associated with him during his long and peaceful reign.Two marriages of Amenhotep III

The Semna stela of the viceroy Merimose

Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) (c. 1379-1361), was invested as king not in the Amen temple at Karnak as custom dictated, but at Hermonthis, where his uncle Inen was High Priest of Re and immediately began building a roofless temple to the Aten, the disk of the rising sun. He soon forbade the worship of other gods, especially of the state god Amen of Thebes. In the 6th year he changed his name from Amenhotep ("Amen is satisfied") to Akhenaten ("beneficial to Aten") and left Thebes for a new capital at Akhetaten (El Amarna).

Living there with his queen Nefertiti, six daughters, and possibly several sons, he fostered new styles in art and literature. The confiscation of the wealth of the Amen temples wreaked havoc upon its priesthood. Akhenaten used these riches to strengthen the royal control over the army and his officialdom. His concentration on internal affairs brought about the loss of some of the Egyptian possessions in Canaan and Retenu (Syria) and of the Egyptian naval dominance, when Aziru defected to the Hittites with his fleet.

His religious reforms did not survive his reign and monotheism [2] in its pure form was forgotten in Egypt, even though it found a new expression in the trinity of Re, Ptah and Amen. The Aten temples were demolished, and Akhenaten came to be called "the Enemy" or the "criminal of Akhetaten."The Amarna letters

The subsequent events are unclear, but it is possible that on the death of Akhenaten, Meritaten, who had become his wife as well as co-regent, married Smenkhkare. (Some think that Meritaten may have been Smenkhkare)

An attempt by Kiya to usurp the throne was suppressed and the remains of Akhenaten and Tiye were transferred to another site in the Valley of the Kings; Akhenaten was buried in Kiya's coffin. In Tutankhamen's reign, both mummies were moved to the tomb of Amenhotep III. Tutankhamen (c. 1361-1352 BCE), the son in law of Akhenaten, succeeded his brother Smenkhkare when he was only nine years old. His vizier Ay restored the traditional polytheistic religion, abandoning the monotheistic cult of Aten of Akhenaten, its religious centre at el Amarna and returning to the capital Thebes. By reviving the cult of the state god Amen he strengthened the position of Amen's priesthood. The pharaoh changed his name Tutankhaten, (living image of Aten), to Tutankhamen, (living image of Amen).

During his reign, the general Horemheb sought to 'pacify' Canaan and fought against the Hittites in northern Syria allied to the Assyrians.

Tutankhamen's restoration

Tutankhamen died at the age of 18, some claim that he was murdered, but there is no real evidence to support this. As there were apparently no legal heirs, a plea by the King's Wife for a suitable prince consort seems to have reached the Hittite king Suppiliuma.The "Zannanza" affair

Tutankhamen was succeeded by Ay (c. 1352-1348), who married his widow, Ankhesenamen, and furnished the former king's tomb [1]. Ay acceded to the throne despite Horemheb's claim to be the designated successor. His accession to the throne may have been an attempt on the part of the Egyptians to appease the Hittites, by whom they had just been defeated. Horemheb (c.1321-1293) who followed Ay, pursued a more hawkish policy vis-à-vis the Hittites, rebuilding his army devastated by the pestilence, which had affected much of the Near East killing the Hittite king Suppiluliuma who was followed by Mursili.

19th Dynasty

Ramses I, founder of the 19th dynasty of Egyptian pharaohs, reigned for little more than a year, between 1293 and 1291 BC. Apparently chosen for succession by the last pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Horemheb, in whose army he had been a commander, Ramses planned and started to build the colonnaded hall in the temple at Karnak.Stela at Buhen

Seti I succeeded his father, Ramses I and ruled from about 1291 till 1278 BCE. He reoccupied the forts in Sinai which had been taken over by the Shasu and conducted several campaigns in Syria and Canaan fighting local kings, the Hittites and nomadic tribes like the Hebrews.

He is remembered for his work on the temples at Karnak and for his magnificent tomb at Thebes. He was succeeded by Ramses II.Excerpts from the Journal of a frontier official

Ramses II smiting enemies

Ramses II (c. 1278-1237 BCE) is remembered for his military campaigns and his extensive building program [3], the remains of which are still conspicuous. Ramses, like his father Seti I, pursued a vigorous foreign policy by attacking the Hittites, the chief opponents of the Egyptian empire in the East. His first campaigns against them in the fifth year of his reign ended in an Egyptian retreat after a violent battle at Kadesh in Syria, during which Ramses himself narrowly escaped capture mainly thanks to the intervention of a troop contingent arriving from Amurru. The consequent loss of prestige sparked revolts within the empire, and Ramses could not resume direct hostilities against the Hittites until the tenth year of his reign; the conflicts were finally concluded by a peace treaty in his 21st year.

The mummy of Ramses II

He also fought in Trans-Jordan and Nubia and secured the western coast road of Egypt against Libyan invaders by building fortresses along the Mediterranean coast as far as 300 km west of the Delta.

Ramses was responsible for building many large temples, most notably that at Abu Simbel in Nubia. He also founded a new royal capital at Per-Ramesse ("the house of Ramses") in the eastern Nile delta. During his long reign, Ramses had more than 100 children, and by his death he had outlived his 11 eldest sons.

Egyptian accounts of the battle of Kadesh
Commemorative Stela of the family of Ramses at Tanis
Correspondence between Ramses and Hattusili III
Beit Shean Stelae inscription
The Asiatic campaigning of Ramses II

Ramses was succeeded by his 12th, surviving son, Merneptah (c.1212-1202 BCE). Under Merneptah an army of the Sea Peoples attacked Egypt which consisted for the most part of the Akhaivasa (perhaps Achaeans), and has been chronologically related to the migratory wave that put an end to Troy VII a.Hymn to Merneptah (the so-called Israel Stela)

The report of a frontier official
The Pursuit of Runaway Slaves

The time following his reign was chaotic, Seti II who was probably a legitimate heir, reigned for some six years, while coming from Nubia, a usurper, Amenmes controlled Upper Egypt and was followed by Ramses Siptah (later called Merneptah Siptah).

Queen Twosret, widow of Seti II, tried to expunge the memory of her predecessor. According to the Harris Papyrus Yarsu, perhaps identical with the Syrian chancellor of Siptah, usurped the throne during this period.

20th Dynasty

Succeeding his father Sethnakhte who reigned for three years, Ramses III (c.1182-1151 BCE) saved Egypt from foreign invasion but failed to solve internal problems (political conspiracies and weakened social structures) that led to the disintegration of the Egyptian state 80 years after his death. Ramses fought off Libyan invasions in his fifth and eleventh year. He also claimed to have held back a horde of invading Sea Peoples who were sweeping down the eastern Mediterranean coast towards Egypt.

Despite these external successes, royal power declined and Egypt lost its Asiatic colonies which were conquered by the Sea Peoples, even if in the Medinet Habu texts describing the battle of Ramses III the Egyptians claim that they settled them as vassals in Southern Canaan.

During the reigns of Ramses III or IV most centres of Egyptian power in Canaan were destroyed and Ramses VI withdrew from Serabit el Khadim, the copper mines of Timna and possibly Megiddo. During this time the temples became richer at the expense of the pharaohs; Ramses III for instance attempted building only one major structure. Government was corrupt and inefficient, and Ramses himself was the target of an assassination plot before being succeeded by his son Ramses IV in 1151 BCE. He was buried in the Valley of the Kings. Until the end of the 20th dynasty the empire shrank and ambitious royal building programs failed. Government was impeded by the independence of officialdom, as offices became hereditary, and corruption and inefficiency increased. Its influence in the Middle East declined. The New Kingdom ended in turmoil under Ramses XI.

Dynasties XII to XVII The growth of the middle class and the conquest of the Hyksos

Middle Kingdom

12th Dynasty, c.1991-1786 BCE

The 12th dynasty which, according to Manetho had seven kings, was founded by Amenemhet I, Mentuhotep IV's vizier, (1991 BCE), and worked hard to restore royal prestige, seriously damaged by civil war and periodic famine. Its kings, moving their capital to Itjtawy, reduced the power of the provincial rulers and fostered the growth of a loyal central elite, using propagandistic literature to encourage recruitment of able civil servants and their unconditional allegiance, and transform the royal image from that of an insecure war leader to that of a confident, semi-divine ruler. They continued the tradition of pyramid building and were buried in the Fayum region and at Dahshur.

The external situation remained dangerous. The northern Nubian and Sinai buffer zones were reoccupied and, for the first time, heavily fortified. Foreign trade expanded and diplomatic contacts were established, but Egyptian activity was more confined than during the Old Kingdom.

Social change was considerable. People had become more conscious of their rights, and royal policies had to both satisfy and temper this tendency. Religion was affected: funerary beliefs and rituals once largely restricted to kings, their immediate family and close followers, spread throughout all classes.

During the First Intermediate Period Egyptians had been less dependent on the state which had virtually disintegrated, stressing their economic self-sufficiency. Under the 12th dynasty royal policies encouraged the growth of a middle class, whose members were buried in well-furnished tombs and active at cult centers such as Abydos. Osiris, formerly a royal funerary god, became accessible to all.

Architectural remains become more varied. At Kahun, a large town was divided up into zones of better and poorer housing, reflecting significant socio-economic stratification; superbly designed fortresses were built in Nubia; and the ground plans of several temples have survived. Some kings built cenotaphs at Abydos, where many private memorial chapels of unique type have also been discovered recently.

Funerary remains continue to be the best source of art forms. At Thebes a new type of royal tomb developed, culminating in the unique terraced monument of Nebhepetre topped, not by a pyramid, but by a cubical version of the primeval mound. The pharaohs of the 12th dynasty, anxious to be identified with the autocratic Old Kingdom, revised the classic complex pyramid but included unusual subterranean elements evoking the mythical tomb of Osiris. Royal statues were often idealized, but some depicted a care-worn and more realistic figure. The elite continued to be buried in mastabas and rock-cut tombs, decorated first in awkward but striking styles reflecting the breakdown of the ancient stylistic norms, but later returning to more sophisticated, traditional modes.

Amenemhet I, (Ammenemes I) , murdered in 1962 BCE, overthrew the Theban rulers of Egypt to found the 12th Dynasty about 1991 BCE. He campaigned against the Libyans and the nomads in the Sinai. There he erected the Wall of the Prince to guard the eastern borders. He also built a trading post in Nubia at Kerma. He moved his capital from Thebes to central Egypt (on the border of Upper and Lower Egypt) and named it Itj-Tawy, "Seizer of Two Lands." Among his many wives was Nefrutotenen, mother of Senusret I. Amenemhet made Senusret I co-ruler in 1971 BCE.

Amenemhet's line, from non-royal origin, began a golden age for Egypt. The 'Testament of Amenemhet', included in the Milligan Papyrus and the Papyrus Sallier II, was written as a commemorative following Amenemhet's death. The 'Testament' defines royal obligations and the needs of the people. It states that there are perils awaiting a king who is not wary of those around him. It also states that loneliness and personal sacrifice make for a good king.

The teachings of Amenemhet
The inscription of Khnumhotep I

Senusret I (Sesostris), (1971-1928 BCE) who had not been appointed successor yet, secured the throne for himself after Amenemhet's assassination, by executing the plotters and publicizing his father's testament, The Teachings of Amenemhet, which became an Egyptian literary classic. He conquered Lower Nubia (Wawat) and controlled it by building a number of fortresses, among them Buhen. The economic importance of the region lay in its mines and quarries - gold in the Wadi Allaqi, amethyst in the Wadi el Hudi and gneiss at Toshka. To the east in the Red Sea region, expeditions were led to Wadi Hammamat, Gawasis and Gasus. Senusret I was succeeded by his son Amenemhet II.

Amenemhet II was co-ruler with his father Senusret I for three years. Upon his father's death, Amenemhet II became the third king of the 12th Dynasty. His only campaign was in Nubia. Instead of military expeditions he directed his attention toward internal affairs and the nomarchs. These nomarchs were nobles of Egyptian provinces, or nomes, and served as the kings representatives. Raising their own armies, they defended their own borders.

The inscription of Khnumhotep II, description of four generations of Middle Kingdom noblemen.
The inscription of Thuthotep, the nomarch of the Hare nome.

Senusret III, 1878-1843 BCE, fixed Egypt's southern border above the second cataract of the Nile. He also waged campaigns aimed at combating the Libyans of the Western Desert and retaining Egyptian influence and trade ties with Syria and Canaan. He supervised the design and construction of numerous public works and curbed the power of the nobility. These efforts led to an ever greater centralisation of the administration and concentration of power in the capital, with an accompanying growth of well-being, and a decline of the provinces.

The Semna Stelae of Senusret III
Earliest mention of a campaign in Canaan (Stela of Khusobek)

Amenemhet III (Nimaatre) (1817-1772 BCE) completed the building of the great waterwheels of the Fayum, thus diverting the flood waters of the Nile into Lake Moeris. The irrigation system and an overflow canal, was used to drain the marshes. An estimated 153,600 acres of fertile land was reclaimed from the water.

Amenemhet raised two colossal statues of himself nearby to celebrate this feat. Among his many achievements was the famous Labyrinth, also known as the Pyramid of Hawara, one of the great wonders of the ancient world. The central burial chamber of the pyramid, carved from a single block of granite, is estimated to have weighed 110 tons. His pyramidal tomb was built at Dashur, which he abandoned in favor of the Hawara Pyramid.

While most kings were forgotten by the population a short while after their deaths, Amenemhet III was still remembered in the region in Ptolemaic times, and children were named after him.[1]

Under Amenemhet copper was mined in the Sinai and local mines, often under dreadful conditions for the miners.

According to two missives Amenemhet prevented a migration of starving Nubians into Upper Egypt by providing food aid, sending bread and beer to the drought stricken region.[1]

Asiatics in Egyptian Household Services18th century BCE
Description of Asiatic life from the Tale of Sinuhe

Second Intermediate Period

13th Dynasty, 1786-1633 BCE

Manetho assigns sixty kings to this dynasty, and a reign of 453 years, numbers which are certainly inaccurate.

With the decline of the 13th Dynasty, Egypt lost much of its power and cohesion. The military leaders and soldiers stationed in Nubia became more and more independent. Some of them may even have permanently settled in Nubia. The fortresses built along the Eastern border were either abandoned, or control over who passed the borders was not as strict as it used to be. Canaanite nomads entered the country freely.

Most of these Canaanites settled and became traders, farmers or craftsmen, but at least one of them, Khendjer, became a king. By the end of the 13th Dynasty, the Eastern Delta was populated mostly by Asiatics.

14th Dynasty, c. 1786-1603 BCE

According to Manetho the 14th dynasty was from Xois and comprised seventy-six kings who ruled for 184 years. The dynasty is very obscure.

15th and 16th Dynasties: the Hyksos, c. 1684-1567 BCE

Weakened by internal problems, Lower Egypt was taken over seemingly with little fighting by the invading or perhaps just immigrant Hyksos, who set up two contemporaneous dynasties. 

The 15th dynasty (1674-1567) of the great Hyksos kings, which according to Manetho consisted of six kings, dominated the, according to Manetho, 32 Hyksos vassal chiefs of the 16th dynasty (1684-1567). Alternatively this was a dynasty of five kings ruling at Thebes.

Greek writers, beginning with Manetho, called them "Hyksos," which was mistranslated as "shepherd kings." Egyptians seem to have called these kings heqa-khasut, rulers of foreign lands, but they generally referred to invading foreigners as amu, asiatics or shamu, sand-dwellers.

The Hyksos were a Semitic (Canaanite or Amorite) people and may have come from southern Canaan or Syria. Evidence seems to point to their having had a nomadic life style.

The dating and naming of the Hyksos kings is still quite uncertain. The foundation of their capital Avaris, which used to be referred to as Tanis, and the beginning of their domination of the Delta took place in about 1720, according to the 400 year stela of Ramses II found there, which describes the arrival of his father Seti, then Vizier of Horemheb at Tanis to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the adoration of Seth at Tanis. 

Their rule over Lower Egypt lasted from the conquest of Memphis by Salitis (Sheshi) in 1674, till their expulsion in 1567 BCE and was mainly a time of peace and prosperity. Major Hyksos cities or camps were at Tell el-Yahudiyeh, Heliopolis, Tell el-Maskhuta and Tell ed-Dab'a (Avaris).

Egyptian religion was respected; Egyptian was the language of government; and many Egyptians served in the administration.

Their most important contributions to Egyptian culture were perhaps the introduction of Canaanite deities such as the Storm God whom they identified with Seth, and Asian artifacts, which were instrumental in abrogating the despotism and isolationism of the Old and Middle kingdoms.

Foreign culture became established at a few eastern Delta sites, and the Egyptians acquired new military techniques, such as the use of the horse-drawn chariot and the composite bow during this period. Their conquests were strengthened by a type of rectangular fortification of beaten earth used as a fortress; archaeologists have uncovered examples of these mounds in Canaan at Jericho, Sihem, and Lahish.

The Hyksos seem to have behaved in accordance with Egyptian manners, laws, and theories of monarchy since the times of Khyan (Iannas, last third of the 17th century). It was also during his reign that Hyksos influence, political and economical, over Egypt and Canaan became more marked. They maintained tribute or trade relations with the Minoans and Babylonians and Egyptian artifacts bearing Khyan's name were found as far as Babylon, Knossos and Hatti. As so often happened in the ancient world, the foreign conquerors gradually adopted the ways of the conquered.

But the Hyksos dream of being integrated into Egyptian society died within a century. The ruling family of Upper Egypt which originated from Thebes, waged war against the Hyksos kings. Apepi I (Auserre, c.1600 to 1560) tried unsuccessfully to counter the threat posed by Tao II (Sekenenre) and Kamose (Wadjkheperre) by entering into an alliance with the Kushites who had conquered Nubia. He killed Tao II in battle (though some think that Tao was assassinated), but had to retreat northward before Kamose to the vicinity of Avaris in the delta.

Skull of Tao II with multiple head wounds

In the end the Thebans forced Khamudi (Apepi II), the last king of the 15th (Hyksos) Dynasty to negotiate the withdrawal of the Hyksos army from Avaris and most of the Delta. The southern Pharaohs did not keep the agreement and Amosis (Ahmose I), the great general, drove the Hyksos out of Egypt by 1550 BCE after a decisive victory at Tanis.

Manetho about the Hyksos

17th Dynasty, c.1650-1567 BCE

The surviving records of Manetho concerning this dynasty are confusing. It sometimes seems to be identified with the 15th dynasty, alternatively 43 kings are given ruling at Thebes. Among them were Tao I Seakhtenre, Tao II Sekenenre, and Kamose who conducted the military campaign against the Hyksos. After their expulsion the Theban kings of the 18th Dynasty kept on raiding the Hyksos cities of the Middle East for many years to come.


The role played by the queens of this epoch was at times crucial to the success of the Thebans and attested to in the tombs of the 18th dynasty. They didn't just provide legal continuity, but often led their armies after the demise of their husbands. The tomb of Queen Ahhotep, wife of Kamose, contained much weaponry and three golden flies, the Egyptian award for bravery.

The quarrel between Apepi I and Sekenenre Tao
Kamose inscription
Tomb inscription of Ahmose, son of Ebana : The expulsion of the Hyksos