Sobekneferu

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Sobekneferu
Neferusobek Skemiophris (in Manetho)
Bust of Sobekneferu (Louvre)
Pharaoh
Reign	1806–1802 BC (12th Dynasty)
Predecessor	Amenemhat IV
Successor	uncertain, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep or, in older studies, Wegaf
Royal titulary
Father	Amenemhat III
Died	1802 BC
Burial	Northern Mazghuna pyramid (?)

Sobekneferu (sometimes written "Neferusobek") was an Egyptian woman reigning as pharaoh after the death of her brother Amenemhat IV. She was the last ruler of the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt and governed Egypt for almost four years from 1806 to 1802 BC. Her name means "the beauty of Sobek."

Family

She was the daughter of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. Manetho states she also was the sister of Amenemhat IV, but this claim is unproven. Sobekneferu had an older sister named Nefruptah, who may have been the intended heir. Neferuptah's name was enclosed in a cartouche and she had her own pyramid at Hawara. Neferuptah died at an early age, however.

Reign

Sobekneferu was the first known woman reigning as pharaoh for which there is confirmed proof. There are five women who are believed to have ruled as early as the First Dynasty and Nitocris may have ruled in the Sixth Dynasty.

Amenemhat IV most likely died without a male heir; consequently, Amenemhat III's daughter, Sobekneferu, assumed the throne. According to the Turin Canon, she ruled for 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days in the late nineteenth century BC.

She died without heirs and the end of her reign concluded Egypt's brilliant Twelfth Dynasty and the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom as it inaugurated the much weaker Thirteenth Dynasty.

Monuments and Tomb

Drawing by Flinders Petrie of the cylinder seal of Sobekneferu in the British Museum.

Few monuments have been discovered for her, although many of her (headless) statues have been preserved including the base of a representation of a king's royal daughter that was discovered in Gezerand bears her name. One statue with a head is known. A bust in the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Inv. no. 14476), lost in World War II, could be identified as belonging to her. Today, the sculpture is known only from photographic images and plaster casts. It came in 1899 to the museum. The head fits on top of the lower part of a royal statue discovered at Semna. The latter can be identified for sure as royal because the royal symbol unification of the two countries appears on the side of her throne. It is known that she made additions to the funerary complex of Amenemhat III at Hawara (called a labyrinth by Herodotus) and also built structures at Herakleopolis Magna.

A fine cylinder seal bearing her name and royal titulary is located in the British Museum. A Nile graffito, at the Nubian fortress of Kumma records the Nile inundation height of 1.83 meters in Year 3 of her reign. Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records year 4, second month of the peret season. Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps, only a stepsister of Amenemhat IV. The Danish Egyptologist, Kim Ryholt, notes that the contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu never adopted the title of King's Sister--only 'King's Daughter'--which supports this hypothesis. Additionally, all Egyptian rulers were given the title 'king', regardless of gender.

Her tomb has not been identified positively, although she may have been interred in a pyramid complex in Mazghuna that lacks inscriptions. It is immediately north of a similar complex ascribed to Amenemhat IV. A place called Sekhem-Neferu is mentioned in a papyrus found at Harageh. This might be the name of her pyramid.

Lecture: Bat (goddess)

image of goddess Bat

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bat was a cow goddess in Egyptian mythology depicted as a human face with cow ears and horns. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, her identity and attributes were subsumed within the goddess Hathor.

Worship

The worship of Bat dates to earliest times and may have its origins in Late Paleolithic cattle herding. Bat was the chief goddess of Seshesh, otherwise known as Hu or Diospolis Parva, the 7th nome of Upper Egypt.

The Narmer Palette, Bat flanks the top of both sides.

Both Hathor (left) and Bat flank Menkaure in this Fourth Dynasty triad statue. The goddesses provide the authority for him to be king and are identified by their crowns. The emblem on Bat's crown represents the sistrum, though the crown also includes her zoomorphic face and the feather of Ma'at. - Cairo Museum

Name

The epithet Bat may be linked to the word ba with the feminine suffix 't'. A person's ba roughly equates to his or her personality or emanation and is often translated as 'soul'.

Depictions in ancient Egyptian culture

Although it was rare for Bat to be clearly depicted in painting or sculpture, some notable artifacts (like the upper portions of the Narmer Palette) include depictions of the goddess in bovine form. In other instances she was pictured as a celestial bovine creature surrounded by stars or as a human woman. More commonly, Bat was depicted on amulets, with a human face, but with bovine features, such as the ears of a cow and the inward-curving horns of the type of cattle first herded by the Egyptians.

Bat became strongly associated with the sistrum, and the center of her cult was known as the 'Mansion of the Sistrum'. The sistrum is a musical instrument, shaped like an ankh, that was one of the most frequently used sacred instruments in ancient Egyptian temples. Some instruments would include depictions of Bat, with her head and neck as the handle and base and rattles placed between her horns. The imagery is repeated on each side, having two faces, as mentioned in the Pyramid Texts:.

I am Praise; I am Majesty; I am Bat with Her Two Faces; I am the One Who Is Saved, and I have saved myself from all things evil.

Relation to Hathor

The imagery of Bat as a divine cow was remarkably similar to that of Hathor, a parallel goddess from Lower Egypt. In two dimensional images, both goddesses often are depicted straight on, facing the onlooker and not in profile in accordance with the usual Egyptian convention. The significant difference in their depictions is that Bat's horns curve inward and Hathor's curve outward slightly. It is possible that this could be based in the different breeds of cattle herded at different times.

Hathor's cult center was in the 6th Nome of Upper Egypt, adjacent to the 7th where Bat was the cow goddess, which may indicate that they were once the same goddess in Predynastic Egypt. By the Middle Kingdom, the cult of Hathor had again absorbed that of Bat in a manner similar to other mergers in the Egyptian pantheon.

Dynasties III to XI From the pyramid builders to the beginning of the Middle Kingdom

Old Kingdom

3rd Dynasty (2686-2613 BCE)

According to Manetho this dynasty comprised nine Memphite kings about most of whom very little is known. They were buried at Saqqara.

Djoser (Netjerykhet) ruled for almost two decades (2668-2649 BCE) and is credited with building the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Imhotep was the architect of that great tomb, and of the magnificent royal funerary complex at Saqqara. King Djoser led several campaigns against Asiatic peoples in Canaan and extended his influence over the Sinai desert with its copper mines where some graffiti and his serekh were found at Waddi Maghara.

The Famine Stele on Sehel (Not a contemporary record)

4th Dynasty (2613-2494 BCE)

Manetho claims that eight kings belonged to this dynasty. They ruled at Memphis and built pyramids at Dahshur (Snefru) and Giza.

Snofru, 2575-2551 BCE., was an active military leader. His campaigns against the Nubians are recorded on the Palermo Stone. He conquered the Sinai desert, important for its copper and turquoise mines, initiated a series of construction projects throughout Egypt and began trade with the other Mediterranean nations. To supply Egypt with timber, he sent a fleet of forty ships to Phoenicia. While there, he erected monuments to commemorate the event.

He built his mortuary complex at Dahshur, the Bent Pyramid, the Red Pyramid, and the Meidum Pyramid near Crocodilopolis. The bent pyramid is thought to be an architectural link between the Step Pyramid and the true pyramids. Snofru was deified by the kings of the 12th Dynasty. Many of the rulers of that time built their own mortuary complexes beside his.

Khufu (Cheops)(2585-2566 BCE), Khafre (Chefren) and Menkaure (Mycerinos) are best known for the pyramids they built at Giza.

Herodotus on Khufu
Herodotus on Khafre
Herodotus on Menkaure

Shepseskaf, who followed them (2514-2494 BCE), had to assert his power against various priests and southern tribes. His tomb is at South Saqqara.

5th Dynasty (2494-2345 BCE)

Eight kings made up the fifth dynasty, according to Manetho, though he gives nine names, all of which are also found in the archaeological records. They ruled at Elefantine and built pyramids at Abusir and Saqqara.

Userkaf (c.2494-2487 BCE), grandson of Djedefre, founded the fifth dynasty. He built a sun temple at Abusir and erected his pyramid at Saqqara.

Sahure (c. 2487-2475 BCE) established the Egyptian navy and sent a fleet to Punt and traded with Canaan. His pyramid has colonnaded courts and reliefs of his naval fleet, but his military career consisted mostly of campaigns against the Libyans in the western desert.

Niuserre ruled Ancient Egypt from 2416 till 2392 BC, and is famous for both his solar temple at Abu Gorab and his pyramid at Abusir. The reliefs in the burial chamber of his pyramid describe his military campaigns in the Western Desert and in the Sinai.

Unas (Wenis) ruled Egypt from 2356 till 2323 BC. Successful trading expeditions were conducted to neighbouring nations. An inscription at Elephantine shows a giraffe that was brought to Egypt with other exotic animals. Another drawing found on a vase shows battle scenes. There was a major famine during this time. His pyramid was the first one to be decorated with the magical spells which are referred to as Pyramid Texts.

Tomb inscription of the nomarch Henku


6th Dynasty

The kings list of Manetho states that six kings of Memphis belonged to this dynasty. They were buried in pyramids at Saqqara.

Egypt being fairly cut off from the more warlike middle-eastern nations by the Sinai desert, did not have a standing army. Whenever necessary, forces would be called up by local noblemen and sometimes Bedouins and Nubians would serve as well.

Teti, the first pharaoh of the 6th dynasty reigned from 2346 to 2313 BCE. He sent his army several times into southern Canaan under Weni, a long lived official who served also under Pepi I and Merenre. After a conspiracy in the royal household, Weni was appointed to try the case. The embattled vizier Fefi (Meref-nebef), whose grave has been discovered not long ago, held power over the finances as head of the administration.

Pepi I (2289-2255 B.C.) had to enlist the support of noblemen from Upper Egypt in order to defeat a usurper and Upper Egyptians came to play an important part in his administration: He married two of his vizier's sisters, and Weni, a close adviser, led Nubian troops against the Bedouins in Sinai and southern Canaan. 

Pepi campaigned in Nubia and established garrisons and trading posts. Trade relations with Byblos were flourishing and Punt in the Horn of Africa was frequently reached. His pyramid was so impressive that its name, Mennefermare, was given to the area. The capital, originally named Hiku-Ptah, was renamed Mennefer, then Menfi. The Greeks later transliterated it as Memphis. Pepi built temples at Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Dendera and Coptos.

Pepi's Campaigns in Canaan

Merenre followed Pepi I, but died at a young age. He was succeeded by Pepi II, his half brother, who was still underage. His mother, Queen Ankhesenpepi II, widow of Pepi I, became regent. She was buried in her own pyramid in the mortuary compound of her husband.

According to the kings list Pepi II reigned for 94 years, during which time the power of the pharaoh decayed, as too much wealth was expended on burials and the more talented and vigorous officials left Memphis for the regional capitals. Foreign campaigns into Nubia under Harkhuf and trade expeditions to Punt met with little success.

Queen Nitocris, the last ruler of the dynasty, is only known from Manetho, the Turin Canon and a tale recounted by Herodotus.

Sixth dynasty tomb inscription
The end of the Old Kingdom

First Intermediate Period

There was a breakdown of centralized government, with kings belonging to different dynasties having overlapping reigns and vying for supremacy. For some time the kings of Heracleopolis, supported by the nomarchs of Siut, succeeded in preventing a southern coalition led by the nomarchs of Thebes from conquering northern Egypt, but finally Mentuhotep established order from his capital at Thebes. According to Manetho the 7th dynasty counted 70 kings ruling at Memphis for seventy days, but none of these has been identified and the whole dynasty may be a fiction. The 8th dynasty was given 27 kings by Manetho, who ruled at Memphis during 146 years, some of whom feature in king lists. Manetho accords nineteen kings to the 9th dynasty, who resisded at Herakleopolis during 146 years. Doubts have been cast on the accuracy of these numbers, as of those of the 10th dynasty, who, according to Manetho comprised of nineteen kings, ruling from Herakleopolis for 185 years. The Turin Canon assigns a total of eighteen kings to both dynasties, while other king lists do not mention them. The Theban Mentuhotep II of the 11th dynasty made an end to the rule of the Herakleopolites.

The Instructions of Merikare
The decree of Demedjibtawy protecting mortuary foundations and exempting them from dues and duties
The biography of Tefibi, nomarch of Siut (9/10th dynasty)
The inscriptions of Kheti, son of Tefibi, nomarch of Siut (9/10th dynasty)
The inscriptions of Kheti, son of Sit, nomarch of Siut (9/10th dynasty)

11th Dynasty

Manetho accords this Theban dynasty 16 kings and a reign of 43 years. Its members before Mentuhotep II who united the country under his rule, are not considered to have been pharaohs. The later kings were buried at Deir el Bahri.

Inyotef I (ca.2133-2123) took Thebes as the capital of Egypt and ruled from 2074 till 2064 BC. He was the son of Mentuhotep I, the "elder". The king took over a divided Egypt and tried to reunite the north and the south.

Inyotef II (ca.2123-2074) led an army against his Herakleoplitan allies in Sauty (Assyut). His enemies sacked the city of Tjeni (Thinis) and desecrated its tombs. Inyotef captured the entire tribe but ceased hostilities. He decided to trade with them and maintain the integrity of the Southern Kingdom peacefully.
He was followed by Inyotef III who ruled from 2074 until 2066.

Mentuhotep I (2066-2040 B.C.) took the city of Herakleopolis which was the capital of the kings of the rival 10th Dynasty. This victory established his rule from Thebes. He fought against the Libyans in the Delta and the nomads in the Sinai. He built his mortuary complex at Deir el Bahri. He is not generally accepted as a pharaoh.

Mentuhotep II Nebhepetre (c.2040-2010) conquered the north and rebuilt a centralized monarchy, inaugurating the Middle Kingdom.
The intensity and causes of these disruptive events are uncertain. Later Egyptian writers, appalled by the deviation from accepted norms, exaggerated the revolutionary aspects; they also described an imaginary environmental deterioration, actually a poetic cosmological counterpart to social disorder. More significant were external pressure and internal political instability that long endured; even the 11th dynasty may have been ended by a coup, and the victor, Amenemhet I was himself later assassinated.