The Magic Book, c. 1100 BCE

Tales of Ancient Egypt: 

Princess Ahura: 

We were the two children of the King Merneptah, and he loved us very much, for he had no others; and Naneferkaptah was in his palace as heir over all the land. And when we were grown, the king said to the queen, "I will marry Naneferkaptah to the daughter of a general, and Ahura to the son of another general." And the queen said, "No, he is the heir, let him marry his sister, like the heir of a king, none other is fit for him." And the king said, " That is not fair; they had better be married to the children of the general." And the queen said, "It is you who are not dealing rightly with me." And the king answered, "If I have no more than these two children, is it right that they should marry one another? I will marry Naneferkaptah to the daughter of an officer, and Ahura to the son of another officer. It has often been done so in our family."

And at a time when there was a great feast before the king, they came to fetch me to the feast. And I was very troubled, and did not behave as I used to do. And the king said to me, "Ahura, have you sent some one to me about this sorry matter, saying, "Let me be married to my elder brother?'" I said to him, "Well, let me marry the son of an officer, and he marry the daughter of another officer, as it often happens so in our family." I laughed, and the king laughed. And the king told the steward of the palace,"Let them take Ahura to the house of Naneferkaptah tonight, and all kinds of good things with her." So they brought me as a wife to the house of Naneferkaptah; and the king ordered them to give me presents of silver and gold, and things from the palace.

And Naneferkaptah passed a happy time with me, and received all the presents from the palace; and we loved one another. And when I expected a child, they told the king, and he was most heartily glad; and he sent me many things, and a present of the best silver and gold and linen. And when the time came, I bore this little child that is before you. And they gave him the name of Merab, and registered him in the book of the "House of Life."

And when my brother Naneferkaptah went to the cemetery of Memphis, he did nothing on earth but read the writings that are in the catacombs of the kings and on the tablets of the "House of Life," and the inscriptions that are seen on the monuments, and he worked hard on the writings. And there was a priest there called Nesiptah; and as Naneferkaptah went into a temple to pray, it happened that he went behind this priest, and was reading the inscriptions that were on the chapels of the gods. And the priest mocked him and laughed. So Naneferkaptah said to him, "Why are you laughing at me? "And he replied, "I was not laughing at you, or if I happened to do so, it was at your reading writings that are worthless. If you wish so much to read writings, come to me, and I will bring you to the place where the book is that Thoth himself wrote with his own hand, and which will bring you to the gods. When you read but two pages in this, you will enchant the heaven, the earth, the abyss, the mountains, and the sea; you shall know what the birds of the sky and the crawling things are saying; you shall see the fishes of the deep, for a divine power is there to bring them up out of the depth. And when you read the second page, if you are in the world of ghosts, you will become again in the shape you were in on earth. You will see the sun shining in the sky, with all the gods, and the full moon."

And Naneferkaptah said, "By the life of the king! Tell me of anything you want done, and I'll do it for you, if you will only send me where this book is." And the priest answered Naneferkaptah, "If you want to go to the place where the book is, you must give me a hundred pieces of silver for my funeral, and provide that they shall bury me as a rich priest." So Naneferkaptah called his lad and told him to give the priest a hundred pieces of silver; and he made them do as he wished, even everything that he asked for. Then the priest said to Naneferkaptah, "This book is in the middle of the river at Koptos, in an iron box; in the iron box is a bronze box; in the bronze box is a sycamore box; in the sycamore box is an ivory and ebony box; in the ivory and ebony box is a silver box; in the silver box is a golden box; and in that is the book. It is twisted all round with snakes and scorpions and all the other crawling things around the box in which the book is; and there is a deathless snake by the box." And when the priest told Naneferkaptah, he did not know where on earth he was, he was so much delighted.

And when he came from the temple, he told me all that had happened to him. And he said, "I shall go to Koptos, for I must fetch this book; I will not stay any longer in the north." And I said, "Let me dissuade you, for you prepare sorrow and you will bring me into trouble in the Thebaid." And I laid my hand on Naneferkaptah, to keep him from going to Koptos, but he would not listen to me; and he went to the king, and told the king all that the priest had said. The king asked him, "What is it that you want?" And he replied, "Let them give me the royal boat with its belongings, for I will go to the south with Ahura and her little boy Merab, and fetch this book without delay." So they gave him the royal boat with its belongings, and we went with him to the haven, and sailed from there up to Koptos.

Then the priests of Isis of Koptos, and the high priest of Isis, came down to us without waiting, to meet Naneferkaptah, and their wives also came to me. We went into the temple of Isis and Harpokrates; and Naneferkaptah brought an ox, a goose, and some wine, and made a burnt offering and a drink offering before Isis of Koptos and Harpokrates. They brought us to a very fine house, with all good things; and Naneferkaptah spent four days there and feasted with the priests of Isis of

Koptos, and the wives of the priests of Isis also made holiday with me.

And the morning of the fifth day came; and Naneferkaptah called a priest to him, and made a magic cabin that was full of men and tackle. He put the spell upon it and put life into it, and gave them breath, and sank it in the water. He filled the royal boat with sand, and took leave of me, and sailed from the haven: and I sat by the river at Koptos that I might see what would become of him. And he said, "Workmen, work for me, even at the place where the book is." And they toiled by night and by day; and when they had reached it in three days, he threw the sand out and made a shoal in the river. And then he found on it entwined serpents and scorpions, and all kinds of crawling things around the box in which the book was; and by it he found a deathless snake around the box. And he laid the spell upon the entwined serpents and scorpions and all kinds of crawling things which were around the box, that they would not come out. And he went to the deathless snake, and fought with him, and killed him; but he came to life again, and took a new form. He then fought again with him a second time; but he came to life again, and took a third form. He then cut him in two parts, and put sand between the parts, that he should not appear again.

Naneferkaptah then went to the place where he found the box. He uncovered a box of iron, and opened it; he found then a box of bronze, and opened that; then he found a box of sycamore wood, and opened that; again he found a box of ivory and ebony, and opened that; yet, he found a box of silver, and opened that; and then he found a box of gold; he opened that, and found the book in it. He took the book from the golden box, and read a page of spells from it. He enchanted the heaven and the earth, the abyss, the mountains, and the sea; he knew what the birds of the sky, the fish of the deep, and the beasts of the hills all said. He read another page of the spells, and saw the sun shining in the sky, with all the gods, the full moon, and the stars in their shapes; he saw the fishes of the deep, for a divine power was present that brought them up from the water. He then read the spell upon the workmen that he had made, and taken from the haven, and said to them, "Work for me, back to the place from which I came." And they toiled night and day, and so he came back to the place where I sat by the river of Koptos; I had not drunk nor eaten anything, and had done nothing on earth, but sat like one who is gone to the grave.

I then told Naneferkaptah that I wished to see this book, for which we had taken so much trouble. He gave the book into my hands; and when I read a page of the spells in it, I also enchanted heaven and earth, the abyss, the mountains, and the sea; I also knew what the birds of the sky, the fishes of the deep, and the beasts of the hills all said. I read another page of the spells, and I saw the sun shining in the sky with all the gods, the full moon, and the stars in their shapes; I saw the fishes of the deep, for a divine power was present that brought them up from the water. As I could not write, I asked Naneferkaptah, who was a good writer and a very learned one; he called for a new piece of papyrus, and wrote on it all that was in the book before him. He dipped it in beer, and washed it off in the liquid; for he knew that if it were washed off, and he drank it, he would know all that there was in the writing.

We went back to Koptos the same day, and made a feast before Isis of Koptos and Harpokrates. We then went to the haven and sailed, and went northward of Koptos. And as we went on, Thoth discovered all that Naneferkaptah had done with the book; and Thoth hastened to tell Ra, and said, "Now, know that my book and my revelation are with Naneferkaptah, son of the King Merneptah. He has forced himself into my place, and robbed it, and seized my box with the writings, and killed my guards who protected it." And Ra replied to him, "He is before you, take him and all his kin." He sent a power from heaven with the command, "Do not let Naneferkaptah return safe to Memphis with all his kin." And after this hour, the little boy Merab, going out from the awning of the royal boat, fell into the river: he called on Ra, and everybody who was on the bank raised a cry. Naneferkaptah went out of the cabin, and read the spell over him; he brought the body up because a divine power brought him to the surface. He read another spell over him, and made him tell of all that happened to him, and of what Thoth had said before Ra. We turned back with him to Koptos. We brought him to the Good House, we fetched the people to him, and made one embalm him; and we buried him in his coffin in the cemetery of Koptos like a great and noble person.

And Naneferkaptah, my brother, said, "Let us go down, let us not delay, for the king has not yet heard of what has happened to him, and his heart will be sad about it." So we went to the haven, we sailed, and did not stay to the north of Koptos. When we were come to the place where the little boy Merab had fallen into the water, I went out from the awning of the royal boat, and I fell into the river. They called Naneferkaptah, and he came out from the cabin of the royal boat. He read a spell over me, and brought my body up, because a divine power brought me to the surface. He drew me out, and read the spell over me, and made me tell him of all that had happened to me, and of what Thoth had said before Ra. Then he turned back with me to Koptos, he brought me to the Good House, he fetched the people to me, and made one embalm me, as great and noble people are buried, and laid me in the tomb where Merab my young child was.

He turned to the haven, and sailed down, and delayed not in the northof Koptos. When he was come to the place where we fell into the river, he said to his heart, "Shall I not better turn back again to Koptos, that I may lie by them? For if not, when I go down to Memphis, and the king asks after his children, what shall I say to him? Can I tell him, "I have taken your children to the Thebaid and killed them, while I remained alive, and I have come to Memphis still alive?=" Then he made them bring him a linen cloth of striped byssus; he made a band, and bound the book firmly, and tied it upon him. Naneferkaptah then went out of the awning of the royal boat and fell into the river. He cried on Ra; and all those who were on the bank made an outcry, saying, "Great woe! Sad woe! Is he lost, that good scribe and able man that has no equal?"

The royal boat went on without any one on earth knowing where Naneferkaptah was. It went on to Memphis, and they told all this to the king. Then the king went down to the royal boat in mourning, and all the soldiers and high priests and priests of Ptah were in mourning, and all the officials and courtiers. And when he saw Naneferkaptah, who was in the inner cabin of the royal boat---from his rank of high scribe---he lifted him up. And they saw the book by him; and the king said, "Let one hide this book that is with him." And the officers of the king, the priests of Ptah, and the high priest of Ptah, said to the king, "Our Lord, may the king live as long as the sun! Naneferkaptah was a good scribe and a very skillful man." And the king had him laid in his Good House to the sixteenth day, and then had him wrapped to the thirty-fifth day, and laid him out to the seventieth day, and then had him put in his grave in his resting-place.

The Book of Caverns

The Book of Caverns appears to have originated in the Ramessid Period (the 20th Dynasty). As an underworld book, it seems almost to emphasize that previous text had been too soft on those deceased who fail their judgment in the afterlife, while at the same time focusing also on the rewards of those who do. It is, in fact, one of our best sources on the ancient Egyptian concept of Hell.

The Osireion, a well known cenotaph of Seti I located at Abydos, along with his mortuary temple, has the first known version of The Book of Caverns that is nearly complete (having its upper register damaged. It is found directly across from the rendering of the Book of Gates within the entry corridor on the left wall. Hence, it appears to be a relatively late funerary text of the New Kingdom, not showing up at all until the 19th Dynasty, and not making it into the tombs within the Valley of the Kings until the following reigns. A deviated version of the final depictions are given a dominant position in the decorative theme of the sarcophagus chamber in the tombs of Merneptah (KV8), Tausert (KV14) and Ramesses III (KV11), so versions of this book may have also been inscribed on earlier gilded shrines around the sarcophagi. Unfortunately, these earlier shrines are lost to us, so that possibility may never be known.

In the third corridor of the tomb of Ramesses IV (KV2) in the Valley of the Kings, Ramesses IV employed the earliest versions of the first and second sections of The Book of Caverns, rather than the traditional Amduat passages, and then repeats these passages twice more in the room behind his sarcophagus chamber. By the reign of Ramesses VI (KV9), we find an almost complete version of the book, here as in the Osireion, opposite the Book of Gates in the front half of the tomb, though due to the limited wall space, some passages had to be continued on pillars and in the upper pillared hall as well. While in the tomb of Ramesses VII (KV1), we find a similar arrangement to that of Ramesses VI on the right wall, here only the first corridor is decorated, with a small excerpt from The Book of Caverns second section. Later though, in the Tomb of Ramesses IX (KV6), there were selections from the first four sections on the right wall of the first and second corridors. However, in the sarcophagus chamber we also find parts of the two remaining sections of the book.

Afterwards, bits and pieces of The Book of Caverns appears here and there, during various periods. For example, the first section and passages of the fourth section, along with the concluding representations were included on a 21st Dynasty papyrus of Nedjmet. There is also a Late Period version in the tomb of Petamenophis that has yielded otherwise missing parts of the text, and another Late Period version containing the first two sections of the book were inscribed on the Nilometer at Roda Island. Though used rarely on late sarcophagi, one example exists with the book's first two sections, along with parts of the Amduat and the Litany of Re.

Jean Francois Champollion apparently first described the version of the book in the tomb of Ramesses VI, and even provided some translations in his thirteenth letter he sent from Egypt. However, no scholars seemed particularly interested in the book until a century later when a second complete version was discovered in the Osireion. Henri Frankfort tried to compose the first translation of that text, assisted by Adriaan de Buck in 1933. However, it was not until the period between 1941 and 1646 that Alexandre Piankoff executed an edition of the text based on several versions which he translated into French. He also translated the text from the tomb of Ramesses VI into English in 1954. Not until 1972 was a version translated into German by Erik Hornung, and a synoptic edition of the text has never been published.

The name we give this text, The Book of Gates, is a modern invention based on the netherworld being divided into "caves" or actually "caverns" from the Egyptian "qerert", for no original title has ever been discovered. However, it should be noted that Piankoff translated qerert to mean "envelope" or "cocoon". Unlike the Amduat and the Book of Gates, this book is not divided up into regions of the night, though an attempt is made to follow the general divisions divided up between three registers. However, these registers often had to be staggered due to space limitations. In all, every version divides the two initial sections into five registers. We also end up with problems in the version of the book in the tombs of Ramesses VI and Ramesses IX, for apparently the initial design of these versions was meant for a left hand wall, but transposed on the right hand wall.

The Book of Caverns is divided into two halves by two large depictions of the ram headed sun god, and each half is further divided into three parts. Hence there are a total of six sections. The text of the first two sections of the book are separated from the representations, with the text placed after the representations, though this order is reversed in the version found in the tomb of Ramesses VII. Here, the sun god invokes the individual beings or groups of gods depicted in the representations within a long monologue. The remaining sections combine representations and captions, as well as a descriptive formula of the earlier books. Each section within the second half of The Book of Caverns is preceded by several litanies, with section five having a total of thirteen.



Like the Book of Gates, the Book of Caverns, with the exception of the final representation, divides the text into registers with further pictures. It should also be noted that it is more literary then previous funerary books of the New Kingdom, having a higher percentage of text to pictures. In section five, the depictions are of Nut and Osiris, with the image of Nut alluding to the theme of the Books of the Sky, which describes the nightly journey of the sun through the body of Nut.

The solar bargue is only found within the final representations. In sections three through six in which the damned and their punishment (occupying the lower registers) are not depicted, the individual scenes have a sun disk. The beings who are portrayed in the various caverns are often enclosed in ovals, while there are sarcophagi that enclose the bodies of gods and goddesses. In the single example found in the tomb of Ramesses VI, some two hundred remarks were added referring to the king.

The obvious theme of this book, like other such text, is the sun god's nightly passage through the netherworld. Interestingly, the distinction between Osiris and Re are clouded, and both actually seem to be viewed as attributes of a sole deity. A principle motif of the book is established primarily in section three. Here, Osiris, who is more prominent then in most prior funerary text, is encountered by Re as a corpse in his "coffer". In section four the god begins to regenerate. Less prominent is the battle with Apophis found in the Amduat and the Book of Gates.

First Section of the Book of Caverns

At the very beginning of the book, two vertical strips depict the solar disk and Re as a ram headed sun god. This is "Re who is in the sky", and his mission is to enter the primeval darkness in order to defend and and provide care to Osiris. Afterwards, depictions of section one are divided into five registers. The separate text is a monologue of Re directing various groups of entities. Here, the three snakes of the Duat's first cavern guard the cavern entrance. Re faces Osiris with his hand extended to him in the third register. We see Osiris within his shrine, protectively surrounded by a serpent, as are his followers inside their sarcophagi. In the bottom register, Osiris' enemies are shown beheaded though still guarded by another three serpents. They are to be punished in the "Place of Annihilation", an ancient Egyptian concept of Hell, as Re condemns them to nonexistence.

Second Section of the Book of Caverns

In section two, Re must reach the various gods and goddesses in their sarcophagi who are guarded by several serpents. He meets various forms of Osiris in the second register and beseeches them to "open their arms to me...receive me". In the third register, Re encounters Osiris in his coffer, which sits aside the ram and jackal headed posts of the sun god found also in the Book of Gates. Other forms of Osiris are encountered in the fourth register, while in the lowest register, we again find Osiris' enemies who are bound and beheaded. Some of these figures are depicted hanging head first with their hearts torn out. Once again, Re condemns them to nonexistence, sending them to the Place of Annihilation where their punishment is carried out by guards with knives. Now, Osiris is told by Re that he will enter the "cavern where Aker is".

Third Section of the Book of Caverns

Hence, in the third section, Re enters the cavern that contains Aker and finds the ithyphallic body of Osiris lying beneath Aker, an earth god. Here, in the first register, Osiris is depicted as the dead king in his sarcophagus, which is guarded by several serpents. After that scene we find depicted several figures with the heads of catfish. They are the helpers of Aker who we will encounter again, and represent the deepest and darkest regions of earth and water. In addition, Re also finds other manifestations of himself within sarcophagi, while the end of the register is filled with divine sarcophagi "in the cavern of Osiris-Khentamentiu".

In the middle register of the third section, we initially encounter Re once again in his manifestation as the Eldest One, who leans on a staff. He addresses four forms of Osiris as the "lords of the Duat". The center scene in this register depicts Aker as a double sphinx surrounded by the gods of the Ennead. The next scene seems to stress the unity of Re and Osiris, with the corpse of Osiris in his sarcophagus, along with a Ram's head, and the eye of Re in sarcophagi. Surrounding all of this is a ouroboros. Next, Osiris is once again shown surmounting a serpent as "the one who has become two".

In the lower register of section three, we once again encounter those who are in hell. In this case, the "enemies" are all upside down and some have been decapitated. Here, in the first two groups who are pleading for mercy, we find for the first time, female enemies. Now the wicked are in the primeval darkness of the Place of Annihilation, and by the end of the register, even their ba (souls) are upside down, and thus being punished. Interestingly, the ithyphallic corpse of Osiris is also here among the enemies, but the sun disk sits above him, and he is protected by a serpent.

Fourth Section of the Book of Caverns

The second half of the Book of Caverns begins with section four. Initially we find an erect serpent named Great One on His Belly, with the solar disk and the ram headed sun god to either side. Here, the opening text in vertical columns consists of three litanies praising the sun god, praising his beauty as he illuminates the region of darkness. Re faces Osiris and his followers and makes a number of promises. In the upper register, we first encounter Isis and Nephthys who lift the body of Osiris so that he may be resurrected. This is followed by a scene depicting Osiris being cared for by his two "sons", Anubis and Horus and following this, Osiris is portrayed as the Bull of the West, accompanies by Horus-Mekhentienirty, a mongoose (ichneumon) who is his son.



The second register of section four begins with Re, one more leaning on a staff, facing the three forms of Osiris. This is followed by a scene depicting Horus and Anubis protecting the double corpse of Osiris, and another scene where they stand in a pose symbolic of protecting Osiris and his ba.

In the lower register, we once again encounter the enemies in hell, who are found and standing on their heads, which this time have not been cut off. However, between them are the "annihilators in the Place of Annihilation,". In this initial scene, the punishing demon is Miuti, the "cat-formed one, from whose clutches there is no escape". We are told that there bodies have been robbed of their souls, and that they can neither see nor hear Re.

Fifth Section of the Book of Caverns

At the beginning of the fifth section of the Book of Caverns, Tatenen, the litanies reveal a little known but important deity as both an earth god and the father of the gods, who rejuvenates the sun. The initial depictions portrays Nut, the goddess of the sky, who lifts the ram headed sun god and the solar disk on her upraised palms. She faces the three registers and is surrounded by motifs representing the course of the sun, including on one side a scarab pushing the solar disk, then a ram, a disk, a ram headed deity and a child, while on the other side, a series of crocodiles pushes a ram's head, a scarab, an utchat eye and a disk. There is also human headed, bearded serpents that rear up on either side of Nut. Her arms are stretched towards the heavens in order to receive the solar child. Here, Nut is called the Mysterious One and "she with the mysterious form.".

A part of the Fifth Section of the Book of Caverns

The upper register of section five begins with Osiris, whose hands are extended out to Re, along with four human headed serpents. In the next scene, we encounter a representation of Tatenen, who is propped up by the corpses of Atum and Khepri. Next, we find two sarcophagi, one of which encases the two manifestations of Re as a child.

In the middle register, initially we find represented the four falcon headed mummies who are forms of Horus, which is followed by Anubis in his role as guardian and a coffin containing the scepter of Atum, which embodies the creative power of the sun god, and therefore "created the netherworld and brought forth the realm of the dead". At the end of this register, we find four unknown goddesses in sarcophagi.

The bottom register of this section opens once again with the ancient Egyptian concept of Hell, where a female deity who carries two stakes in her hand is about to punish two bound prisoners who kneel before her. In the following two scenes the enemies are being punished in large cauldrons. We see in the first cauldron their heads and hearts (which the ancient Egyptians thought of more as the mind), and in the second we find the decapitated, bound, upside down enemies themselves. A uraei fans the flames beneath the cauldrons, which are being held above the fire by the "arms of the Place of Annihilation.

The three registers of section five are interrupted by an image of Osiris, once again depicted in his ithyphallic guise, together with his ba that is symbolized by a bird atop his head. He is guarded by a protective serpent. As the registers continue, we first find an oval containing the four "flesh" hieroglyphs which refer to the corpse of Osiris. His corpse is now cared for by the light and voice of Re. Below this, the goddess Tayt greets the sun god and Osiris, which is followed by a scene depicting the head of Re in its ram manifestation being adored by Osiris and Horus. Another cauldron, in the lower register, contains the flesh, the souls and the shadows of the enemies of Re and Osiris. Once again, the arms of the Place of Annihilation hold the cauldron which is being heated by two goddesses.

It should be noted that the shadow held important connotations to the ancient Egyptians. It was considered to be a major component of an individual, as well as a separate mode of existence. We find the mention of shadows mostly in funerary text such as this, with early references appearing in the Coffin Text of the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom.

Between section five and six, the final part of the Book of Caverns, there is a long text consisting of thirteen litanies which refer to the prior section (five). Here, Re addresses all the entities, including his enemies, portrayed in the section five. The sun god gazes upon his own corpse with the intent of effecting the resurrection of Osiris-Imenrenef, who is "he whose name is hidden".

Sixth Section of the Book of Caverns

The first scene in the upper register of part six depicts the funerary god, Anubis, caring for corpses ("the bodies which are in the earth") in their sarcophagi, which is followed by a second scene where Anubis tends to the sun god, who in his sarcophagus, is depicted as a ram with a falcon head. In the third scene, the sun god, in several manifestations is now being watched over by two goddesses, each of whom stand on the symbols for flesh. Here, he is presented with a ram's head, as a scarab and in his role as "he of the netherworld". In the final scenes of this register, Osiris-Orion leans over a mound containing a fettered and decapitated figure, followed by a god who prays before a falcon. Osiris is shown protecting Horus, his son, as well as the sun god who is within Horus.

In the middle register, initially we find a scene portraying a scarab beetle pushing the sun disk before it out from "between the two mysterious caverns of the West" (the mountains of sunrise). This cavern contains both Osiris and Re, who are met by four standing gods. Here, text addresses the rebirth of the god, which is heralded by the scarab. Yet, even now there remains a final threat, depicted as the great serpent encircling the solar beetle. This obstacle is overcome by the "two old and great gods in the Duat", who cut the serpent into pieces and place a spell upon it. While this serpent seems malicious, another represented in the third scene appears to regenerates Re, who emerges from the mound in a ram head manifestation, to sit upon the tomb of Tatenen. In a fourth scene, two sarcophagi holding falcon headed gods are encountered by Re, while in the next scene, he meets several gods who are headless. Re restores their head with his creative power.



The motif of the lowest register, consistently followed throughout the Book of Caverns, is once again present in this final part of the sixth section. Again, we find scenes of punishment in the place of Annihilation, where at first, goddesses wielding knives torture supine, beheaded figures with their heads set at their feet and who's hearts have been torn from their bodies. The accompanying text also explains that the soul and shadows of these enemies have also been punished. In the second scene, we encounter four bound female enemies who are guarded by two jackal headed goddesses. Re has condemned these enemies, once again, to the "Place of Annihilation, from which there is no escape". Next, four more headless, kneeling and bound enemies are guarded by a god and goddess, and finally in the last scene, the enemies are thrown head first into the depths of the Place of Annihilation, while Osiris rises out of the abyss.

A final representation after the sixth section of the Book of Caverns shows Re emerging from the "two mounds", which are each protected by a god. We also find the solar barque, towed out of the netherworld by twelve gods, while seven more rejoice to either side. While the boat is not yet completely revealed, we do see the ba, the scarab and the ram headed morning form of the sun god, and in front of the barque, we see a ram headed scarab beetle, along with the sun as a child. A symbolic representation of the route through the netherworld, consisting of two triangles, is sown leading to a large representation of the sun disk. The triangles each are half black (the netherworld) and half blue, representing water. In the end, we finally witness Re at the end of his nightly journey, entering the eastern mountains from where he will rise once more to provide light for the living world.

The Valley of the Kings

The Valley of the Kings was the royal cemetery for 62 Pharaohs and is located on the west bank at Luxor. The only entrance to this place was a long narrow winding path. This was a secret place, where sentries were placed at the entrance of the Valley, as well as along the top of the hills, in the hopes of discouraging tomb robbers, who had in the past plundered all royal tombs, including the treasures of the Pyramids! Some thefts were probably carefully planned, but others were spur of the moment, as when an earlier tomb was accidentally discovered while cutting a new one and workmen took advantage of the opportunity. This may have happened when KV 46 was found during the cutting of KV 4 or KV 3 nearby. The tombs in the Valley range from a simple pit (e.g. KV 54), to a tomb with over 121 chambers and corridors ( KV 5)

John Gardiner Wilkinson first established the present numbering system, in 1827, as part of his preparation of a map of Thebes. Wilkinson painted the numbers 1 through 21 at the entrances of the tombs that were then visible. The numbers were assigned geographically, from the entrance to the Valley southward. Since Wilkinson's day, tomb numbers have been assigned in chronological order of discovery, KV 62 (Tutankhamen) being the most recent. Wilkinson's is not the only system of tomb designation that has been used in the Valley though. Several explorers assigned numbers, letters or descriptive labels to the tombs, as the accompanying chart indicates, but Wilkinson's is the only system that is still in use. There are two main wings to the Valley of the Kings, west and east! You will find that eastern side has the majority of the tombs, the western part having very few, but including the tombs of Amenhotep III and Ay.

The earliest known tomb of the New Kingdom within the Valley of the Kings, is that of Tuthmoses I, who started to use the valley as a royal burial site. It is located in a desolate part of the valley, which is supposed to add greater protection as it was small enough to be closely guarded. The good quality of the stones gave the ancient Egyptians the chance to cut many tombs close to each other.

Most of the tombs were found already plundered! A few, like the tomb of Tutankhamen (KV 62) or that of Yuya and Thuyu (KV 46), contained thousands of precious artifacts. Some tombs have been accessible since antiquity, as Greek and Latin graffiti will attest. Some were used as dwellings, or as churches during the Greco-Roman and Byzantine Periods. Most of them have been discovered in the past two hundred years.

Some tombs, like KV 5, had been "lost," and their locations only recently rediscovered.

The very well known Egyptologist, Kent Weeks, who is still working in the valley, on many projects, among them the Theban mapping project, Mr. Kent weeks (Shown with the site author in the picture a bove) spent more than 6 years exploring and trying to uncoverthe secrets of this massive tomb. KV5 is the largest tomb ever found in the valley! Re-excavated in 1995, it contains at least 121 chambers andcorridors! Mr. Weeks believes that it was built for the children of Ramses II. On your way to the inner side of the valley,You can see KV5's entrance location (currently closed to the public)
Since 1922, and Howard Carter's discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen (KV 62), there had been no new tombs discovered in the valley until, on February 9, 2006, the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt announced the discovery of a new tomb. Designated the number KV63, it was discovered by a joint effort between the University of Memphis (USA) and the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt.This is one of the smaller tombs that have been found, consisting of a vertical shaft with an adjacent chamber at the bottom. Some artefacts have been found, but as this is an ongoing project, the details are still to be released

Presently, there are several archaeological projects currently at work in the Valley of the Kings.

Before the actual creation of the tombs is discussed, it is important that the tools, which the workers used, are examined, as well as the actual work crews. Though they are over three thousand years old, many of these tools have survived and in many cases are similar to tools used in construction today.

The first of these tools are the mallet and chisel, a pair of which were discovered and are now in the Royal Ontario Museum, Canada. The mallet is made from acacia wood and is well used, the chisel also being well used and constructed of bronze. Though they were not found in either Deir El-Medina or the Valley of the Kings, they have been dated to the 18th-20th Dynasties and so it can be safely assumed that they are the same type of tool that the tomb makers would have used. Many different types of chisel were used during tomb construction, from pointed tips to flat, broad tips, depending on the type of cut required.

Boning rods were an integral part of ensuring that horizontal surfaces were kept as straight as possible. A set of these were found with the two items above, and are also in the Royal Ontario Museum, Canada. Two workers would hold the boning rods with one of them also holding an identical piece of wood in his other hand. As he moves the piece of wood along the string, any protruding pieces of rock will be seen and can be cut away.

A vast assortment of other tools were used by the tomb makers; triangular level and plumb bobs, plumbs, squares, square levels, and drills, each with their very own specific piece of work to do. Measurement was made by cubits, though whether they were "small cubits" or "Royal cubits" is not always clear (A cubit was a forearm length divided into 6 palms or 24 fingers. The Royal cubit was divided into 7 palms or 28 fingers which corresponds with 20.9 inches per Royal cubit, 3 inches per palm, and ¾ inch per finger)

Pounders were usually made from dolerite, though gneiss or granodiorite could also be used, and tended to be shaped between round and oval, varying in size and weight. Often showing signs of battering and chipping, they were generally used for less precise work.

Polishers tended to be round, oval or flat with a smooth surface. They were produced from a variety of rock, including sandstone, flint, chert or basalt. Used for the final finishing of surfaces they often show signs of polish or abrasion from constant use.

The workers in the Valley of the Kings were all housed at Deir El-Medina, though they would often spend nights in the small enclave of huts built about halfway between the village and their workplace and some workers may even have spent their nights in one of the small huts which were scattered throughout the valley. Each workman had his own task to perform, whether they were stonemasons, draughtsmen, chisel-bearers, carpenters, artists or any one of the other trades which was represented within this community. From an ancient papyrus (Papyrus Salt 124) we know that work crews were separated into two different gangs, a right side and a left side, with a chief workman in charge of each "side".

During the Ramesside Period the workmen were known as the "Servants in the Place of Truth" and also the "Men of the Gang", a name which had come from the Egyptian military and navy referring to the Egyptian term "ist" which means gang or crew. The size of these gangs ranged from thirty to about one hundred and twenty, depending on the tomb being cut.

Work in the tombs depended on the length of time it took an oil filled lamp to burn and die, which was usually about four hours. This meant that the working day was divided into two shifts of four hours each, with a break for lunch and/or rest in between. The lamps were often in the shape of a bowl with a central jar made from one piece of clay. The central jar holds the twisted wick used in oil lamps, which was probably made out of linen coated with oil or animal fat to last longer and to provide light. Forget the illumination of tombs by reflected light off polished surfaces, as seen in the movie "The Mummy", as experiments have shown that this does not work. Also, the theory that says that the tombs would soon run out of air is a non-starter due to the tombs always being open; they were never closed until the Pharaoh was interred.

Scribes accounted for everything that went on in the valley, from the issuing of oil for the lamps to the visit of the vizier, as well as keeping an inventory of tools issued and returned, and these reports were periodically sent to the vizier so he would know what progress was being made. One particular scribe, Qenherkhepeshef, collected a library of reports and other important documents, and it is through him that many facts about life in Deir El-Medina, and the Valley of the Kings, is known. He, and his descendants, amassed a huge collection of papyri which included religious texts, official letters, poetry, stories, and magical and medical texts. They were discovered by French archaeologists at Deir El-Medina in 1928.

Once the King, vizier, architects and chief stonemasons had decided on a suitable site, work on cutting the tomb could commence. The workmen would be issued with the required tools, with this transaction being recorded by the scribe, who would also record its return. Large spike-like chisels would be hit with a mallet to break the rock, debris being removed by workers using leather or wicker baskets: limestone is a relatively soft stone and so work would have progressed at a reasonable pace, unless flint became an obstacle. The entrance doorway was shaped as soon as the workers had cut a space large enough for this operation to be conducted. Once sufficient depth into the mountain was achieved, a red line was painted on the ceiling to ensure that the stone cutters could follow a straight path, as well as it being used as a central point for measurements to be taken from, which could be used to make certain that all the walls were parallel to one another, angles of corners were correct and doorways were perpendicular. These red lines can still be seen inside some of the tombs today. The cutting of a tomb was a matter of great skill as the tombs had to run straight, unless a bend or corner was planned, and any aids which builders of external constructions could not be employed here.

Once work was progressing inside the passageway, smaller chisels were used to shape the corridors, leaving a rough surface for the pounders and polishers to finish. Because many tombs were finished at varying stages of completion, due to the death of the Pharaoh, it is easy to see how these workmen did their tasks. The rock was cut out in small blocks, leaving steps that would allow the stone cutters to work at a greater height without the need for scaffolding. Beyond the stepped portion the cutters continued to dig deeper into the mountain, shaping the ceiling as they dug deeper. Quite often niches were cut, and finished, at the same time as the corridor to save the following workers from having to use scaffolding.

In larger rooms pillars were created to support the ceiling. These were left rough at first, but axial lines were painted on them to assist in the final cutting and smoothing. These rooms also allowed for many workers to complete their tasks at the same time. The burial chamber of Hatshepsut-Meryet-Ra (KV42) revealed that plasters and painters were performing their tasks at the same time as the finishers and smoothers, due to the painted walls and yet the unfinished pillar and ceiling. This could be due to the sudden death of Hatshepsut-Meryet-Ra, and the seventy days in which they had to complete their work, but it does show that the workers would all work together if, and when, required.

When finishing the corridors one thing that had to be ensured was that the walls were not only parallel, but also perpendicular, and the tomb of Thutmose IV (KV43) has left the answer to how this was performed. Thutmose IV was an 18th Dynasty Pharaoh and the archaeological evidence shows that the work patterns, techniques and strategies that the work crews used, throughout the history of the Valley of the Kings and at Akhetaten, changed very little during this period. This tomb shows how plaster blobs were fixed to the walls to serve as plumb line pins.

Once the cutting crew had levelled the surfaces, getting the rock smoothed down to a smooth finish, the work of the cutting crew was complete. These finished surfaces could be extremely smooth allowing for careful studies to be made of the chisel marks left on the walls of tombs in order to determine the sizes and shapes of the implements.

As mentioned earlier, some tomb collisions did occur, which would have surely been avoided had some type of map been available to later workers. During the New Kingdom only three tombs accidentally encroached upon others, and it is surprising that this did not happen more often, especially when one considers how many tombs are in the valley.

The tomb of Siptah (KV47) broke into the tomb of Tia'a (KV32) and the design of the tomb was immediately altered, the intended burial chamber becoming another corridor. The ancient Egyptians simply repaired this accidental intrusion with large stone slabs.

Setnakhte's workers (KV11) broke into the tomb of Amenmeses (KV10) and abandoned work in this tomb. Ramesses III took over ( KV11), the workers changing its direction without further problems.

Whilst cutting (KV9) for Ramesses VI, the workers collided with (KV12)(an unknown occupant) and had to change their design to finish this tomb. This collision was repaired with a simple stone patch.

My Little Occult Shop: The Litany of Re الليتاني من ري

My Little Occult Shop: The Litany of Re الليتاني من ري:

The Litany of Re was a major religious composition known from the New Kingdom. Though most of the renderings are found in tombs, it is not really a book of the netherworld, or a guide to the paths crossing that dark world, though in its theme is seems to be related. Instead, it is a guide to the forms and names of the sun god that also seeks to establish an equality between the dead king and the sun god, and the sun god's ba, or soul. It also contends with the sun god's daily course.

History of the Valley of the Kings (تاريخ وادي الملوك)

Third Intermediate Period

At the end of the New Kingdom, Egypt entered a period of political and economic decline. The priesthood of Amen at Thebes administered Upper Egypt, while kings ruling from Tanis controlled Lower Egypt. The Valley of the Kings suffered from plundering, which led the ruling high priests of Amen during Dynasty 21 to re-wrap and rebury the royal mummies in tombs such as KV 17, KV 35 and KV 57, in order to protect them. Later some of the mummies were moved to a cache south of Dayr al Bahri in TT 320.

Meanwhile, a number of tombs of the Valley of the Kings were reused either for non-royal burials (KV 19, KV 22, KV 24, KV 25, KV 34, KV 44, KV 45, and KV 47) or as a storage/work area (KV 4).

Graeco-Roman Era

For centuries, the Valley of the Kings remained almost deserted, until the arrival of the Greeks during the third century B.C., who expressed a new interest in the Valley, and monuments of Egypt in general. Two of the major tourist attractions in Thebes were the Colossi of Memnon, the pair of massive statues that preceded the pylon of the memorial temple of Amenhetep III [10179]. The northern one emitted a whistling sound at dawn, caused presumably by heated air escaping from cracks which appeared after an earthquake damaged the statue [15060]. Thus, it reminded the Greek visitors of the myth of Memnon who cried out to his mother, Eos, the goddess of the dawn, hence its name. A graffito carved on the foot of the colossus reads as follows: "From Trebulla. Hearing the holy voice of Memnon I missed you, O my Mother, and I prayed that you might hear him too."

The Valley of the Kings was another frequently visited site in Graeco-Roman times. Over two thousand Greek and Roman graffiti can be found in ten royal tombs (KV 1, KV 2, KV 4, KV 6, KV 7, KV 8, KV 9, KV 10, KV 11, KV 15) [16294]. KV 9 attracted the most visitors, probably because Rameses VI's cartouche strongly resembles the one of Amenhetep III and might have been a reminder of their hero Memnon. Around one thousand graffiti were noted in this tomb alone.

The graffiti are often limited to a name and sometimes a date, the visitor's profession, or comment about the tomb. The time period of touristic activities was set between the third century B.C. and sixth century A.D.

Diodorus Siculus and Strabo both visited Egypt between 60-56 B.C. and 25-24 B.C., respectively. According to Diodorus, priests claimed the Valley once contained forty-seven royal tombs, but that, during the reign of Ptolemy I, only seventeen remained. Strabo also mentioned the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. 

Byzantine Period

The next period of activity in the Valley of the Kings corresponds to the expansion of Christianity in Egypt. From the fifth century A.D. onwards, several tombs of the Valley (KV 1, KV 2, KV 4, KV 8, KV 9, KV 15) were used by hermit monks as refuges, while KV 3 was converted into a chapel. Numerous graffiti record hymns and prayers, representations of saints and crosses, and Christian names [10517, 10520, 10514, 13641].

Tomb Builders and Dayr al Madinah (مقبرة بناة ودير المدينة المنورة)

The village of Dayr al Madinah, home to the workmen who excavated and decorated the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, was probably founded during the reign of Thutmes I. His name was found stamped on the many bricks of the first enclosure wall of the village. But Amenhetep I and his mother Ahmes Nefertari were traditionally called its patrons, which may indicate that there was at least a small settlement here during their reign. The village remained in use throughout the New Kingdom (except during the Amarna Period).

Dayr al Madinah is located in a small valley southeast of the Valley of the Kings and northeast of the Valley of the Queens. The village, which was systematically enlarged during the New Kingdom, consisted of one main street along a north-south axis, and a few side alleys. The houses, there were about seventy of them-each had an entrance hall that also functioned as a private chapel, followed by a columned living area that gave access to a small cellar, used for storage. The main room led to smaller rooms, perhaps used as sleeping quarters, and sometimes a staircase led to the roof. At the back of the house an open space was used as a kitchen.





The workmen of the royal necropolis were called the "Servants in the Great Place" or "Servants in the Beautiful Place of the Mighty King" throughout Dynasty 18, and "Servants in the Place of Truth" during the Rameside Period. They were also called the "Men of the Gang," a reference to the Egyptian term ist, meaning "gang" or "crew," a term that came from the Egyptian military and navy. The number of workmen employed on a project varied between 30 and 120, according to the size of the tomb being cut. The men were divided into two groups, a right gang and a left gang. Two foremen and their deputies were appointed to supervise each gang. Scribes kept detailed records of each workman's attendance, accounts of salary payments, and records of any material removed from the royal storerooms.

The working day was divided into two shifts of about four hours each. The week was composed of eight working days followed by two days of rest. During these, the workmen returned to their homes to attend to personal affairs. They might also have spent the night in a settlement of huts located on the col of the mountain between the village and the Valley of the Kings.

If a tomb was completed prior to the death of its royal owner, the workmen were assigned to work on the tombs of queens and royal children in the Valley of the Queens and sometimes even on the tombs of noblemen. As time permitted, workmen could build their own tombs, adjacent to the village of Dayr al Madinah.

The daily life of the workmen and their family is well-known thanks to the vast number of documents found at Dayr al Madinah. Thousands of ostraca, numerous stelae, graffiti, and about two hundred documentary and literary papyri describing daily activity were recovered from the village and the Valley of the Kings.

In chamber 2 of KV 5, the Theban Mapping Project found an ostracon written by the scribe Qenherkhepeshef. According to Egyptologist Rob Demare, the ostracon is a receipt for oil lamps used to light the work in this tomb. Because of the ostracon's distinctive handwriting, Demare was able to identify its scribe as the well-known Qenherkhepeshef, who oversaw much of the building work of Rameses II. He was born during the reign of Rameses II, and lived until the first year of the reign of Siptah. Qenherkhepeshef's father was Panakht, but he also seems to have been adopted by Ramose, another scribe. According to ancient documents, Qenherkhepeshef was not especially popular. He was accused of corruption and of using royal workmen for personal projects.

Qenherkhepeshef and his descendants collected a large library of papyri that were recovered from the cemetery at Dayr al Madinah by French excavators in 1928. It included official letters, religious texts, tales, poetry, medical and magical texts.