Dynasties III to XI From the pyramid builders to the beginning of the Middle Kingdom

Old Kingdom

3rd Dynasty (2686-2613 BCE)

According to Manetho this dynasty comprised nine Memphite kings about most of whom very little is known. They were buried at Saqqara.

Djoser (Netjerykhet) ruled for almost two decades (2668-2649 BCE) and is credited with building the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Imhotep was the architect of that great tomb, and of the magnificent royal funerary complex at Saqqara. King Djoser led several campaigns against Asiatic peoples in Canaan and extended his influence over the Sinai desert with its copper mines where some graffiti and his serekh were found at Waddi Maghara.

The Famine Stele on Sehel (Not a contemporary record)

4th Dynasty (2613-2494 BCE)

Manetho claims that eight kings belonged to this dynasty. They ruled at Memphis and built pyramids at Dahshur (Snefru) and Giza.

Snofru, 2575-2551 BCE., was an active military leader. His campaigns against the Nubians are recorded on the Palermo Stone. He conquered the Sinai desert, important for its copper and turquoise mines, initiated a series of construction projects throughout Egypt and began trade with the other Mediterranean nations. To supply Egypt with timber, he sent a fleet of forty ships to Phoenicia. While there, he erected monuments to commemorate the event.

He built his mortuary complex at Dahshur, the Bent Pyramid, the Red Pyramid, and the Meidum Pyramid near Crocodilopolis. The bent pyramid is thought to be an architectural link between the Step Pyramid and the true pyramids. Snofru was deified by the kings of the 12th Dynasty. Many of the rulers of that time built their own mortuary complexes beside his.

Khufu (Cheops)(2585-2566 BCE), Khafre (Chefren) and Menkaure (Mycerinos) are best known for the pyramids they built at Giza.

Herodotus on Khufu
Herodotus on Khafre
Herodotus on Menkaure

Shepseskaf, who followed them (2514-2494 BCE), had to assert his power against various priests and southern tribes. His tomb is at South Saqqara.

5th Dynasty (2494-2345 BCE)

Eight kings made up the fifth dynasty, according to Manetho, though he gives nine names, all of which are also found in the archaeological records. They ruled at Elefantine and built pyramids at Abusir and Saqqara.

Userkaf (c.2494-2487 BCE), grandson of Djedefre, founded the fifth dynasty. He built a sun temple at Abusir and erected his pyramid at Saqqara.

Sahure (c. 2487-2475 BCE) established the Egyptian navy and sent a fleet to Punt and traded with Canaan. His pyramid has colonnaded courts and reliefs of his naval fleet, but his military career consisted mostly of campaigns against the Libyans in the western desert.

Niuserre ruled Ancient Egypt from 2416 till 2392 BC, and is famous for both his solar temple at Abu Gorab and his pyramid at Abusir. The reliefs in the burial chamber of his pyramid describe his military campaigns in the Western Desert and in the Sinai.

Unas (Wenis) ruled Egypt from 2356 till 2323 BC. Successful trading expeditions were conducted to neighbouring nations. An inscription at Elephantine shows a giraffe that was brought to Egypt with other exotic animals. Another drawing found on a vase shows battle scenes. There was a major famine during this time. His pyramid was the first one to be decorated with the magical spells which are referred to as Pyramid Texts.

Tomb inscription of the nomarch Henku


6th Dynasty

The kings list of Manetho states that six kings of Memphis belonged to this dynasty. They were buried in pyramids at Saqqara.

Egypt being fairly cut off from the more warlike middle-eastern nations by the Sinai desert, did not have a standing army. Whenever necessary, forces would be called up by local noblemen and sometimes Bedouins and Nubians would serve as well.

Teti, the first pharaoh of the 6th dynasty reigned from 2346 to 2313 BCE. He sent his army several times into southern Canaan under Weni, a long lived official who served also under Pepi I and Merenre. After a conspiracy in the royal household, Weni was appointed to try the case. The embattled vizier Fefi (Meref-nebef), whose grave has been discovered not long ago, held power over the finances as head of the administration.

Pepi I (2289-2255 B.C.) had to enlist the support of noblemen from Upper Egypt in order to defeat a usurper and Upper Egyptians came to play an important part in his administration: He married two of his vizier's sisters, and Weni, a close adviser, led Nubian troops against the Bedouins in Sinai and southern Canaan. 

Pepi campaigned in Nubia and established garrisons and trading posts. Trade relations with Byblos were flourishing and Punt in the Horn of Africa was frequently reached. His pyramid was so impressive that its name, Mennefermare, was given to the area. The capital, originally named Hiku-Ptah, was renamed Mennefer, then Menfi. The Greeks later transliterated it as Memphis. Pepi built temples at Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Dendera and Coptos.

Pepi's Campaigns in Canaan

Merenre followed Pepi I, but died at a young age. He was succeeded by Pepi II, his half brother, who was still underage. His mother, Queen Ankhesenpepi II, widow of Pepi I, became regent. She was buried in her own pyramid in the mortuary compound of her husband.

According to the kings list Pepi II reigned for 94 years, during which time the power of the pharaoh decayed, as too much wealth was expended on burials and the more talented and vigorous officials left Memphis for the regional capitals. Foreign campaigns into Nubia under Harkhuf and trade expeditions to Punt met with little success.

Queen Nitocris, the last ruler of the dynasty, is only known from Manetho, the Turin Canon and a tale recounted by Herodotus.

Sixth dynasty tomb inscription
The end of the Old Kingdom

First Intermediate Period

There was a breakdown of centralized government, with kings belonging to different dynasties having overlapping reigns and vying for supremacy. For some time the kings of Heracleopolis, supported by the nomarchs of Siut, succeeded in preventing a southern coalition led by the nomarchs of Thebes from conquering northern Egypt, but finally Mentuhotep established order from his capital at Thebes. According to Manetho the 7th dynasty counted 70 kings ruling at Memphis for seventy days, but none of these has been identified and the whole dynasty may be a fiction. The 8th dynasty was given 27 kings by Manetho, who ruled at Memphis during 146 years, some of whom feature in king lists. Manetho accords nineteen kings to the 9th dynasty, who resisded at Herakleopolis during 146 years. Doubts have been cast on the accuracy of these numbers, as of those of the 10th dynasty, who, according to Manetho comprised of nineteen kings, ruling from Herakleopolis for 185 years. The Turin Canon assigns a total of eighteen kings to both dynasties, while other king lists do not mention them. The Theban Mentuhotep II of the 11th dynasty made an end to the rule of the Herakleopolites.

The Instructions of Merikare
The decree of Demedjibtawy protecting mortuary foundations and exempting them from dues and duties
The biography of Tefibi, nomarch of Siut (9/10th dynasty)
The inscriptions of Kheti, son of Tefibi, nomarch of Siut (9/10th dynasty)
The inscriptions of Kheti, son of Sit, nomarch of Siut (9/10th dynasty)

11th Dynasty

Manetho accords this Theban dynasty 16 kings and a reign of 43 years. Its members before Mentuhotep II who united the country under his rule, are not considered to have been pharaohs. The later kings were buried at Deir el Bahri.

Inyotef I (ca.2133-2123) took Thebes as the capital of Egypt and ruled from 2074 till 2064 BC. He was the son of Mentuhotep I, the "elder". The king took over a divided Egypt and tried to reunite the north and the south.

Inyotef II (ca.2123-2074) led an army against his Herakleoplitan allies in Sauty (Assyut). His enemies sacked the city of Tjeni (Thinis) and desecrated its tombs. Inyotef captured the entire tribe but ceased hostilities. He decided to trade with them and maintain the integrity of the Southern Kingdom peacefully.
He was followed by Inyotef III who ruled from 2074 until 2066.

Mentuhotep I (2066-2040 B.C.) took the city of Herakleopolis which was the capital of the kings of the rival 10th Dynasty. This victory established his rule from Thebes. He fought against the Libyans in the Delta and the nomads in the Sinai. He built his mortuary complex at Deir el Bahri. He is not generally accepted as a pharaoh.

Mentuhotep II Nebhepetre (c.2040-2010) conquered the north and rebuilt a centralized monarchy, inaugurating the Middle Kingdom.
The intensity and causes of these disruptive events are uncertain. Later Egyptian writers, appalled by the deviation from accepted norms, exaggerated the revolutionary aspects; they also described an imaginary environmental deterioration, actually a poetic cosmological counterpart to social disorder. More significant were external pressure and internal political instability that long endured; even the 11th dynasty may have been ended by a coup, and the victor, Amenemhet I was himself later assassinated.

Dynasties I and II The Unification of Egypt

Protodynastic Era

Much of what happened during the earlier periods of Egyptian history is speculative. It seems that the southern king Narmer (perhaps Aha or the legendary Menes) won a victory over a northern king which has been immortalized by the Narmer Palette.

What may have been another southern victory over the inhabitants of the Delta is depicted on the Bull Palette

1st Dynasty (3100-2890 BCE)

According to Herodotus Upper and Lower Egypt were united by Menes (who may be representing a number of kings involved in the process of unification), the founding king of the first dynasty who, according to Manetho, came from the Thinite province in Upper Egypt. Whether unification was achieved by military or peaceful means is uncertain.

According to tradition, Menes founded Memphis on an island in the Nile, conducted raids against the Nubians and extended his power as far as the first cataract. He sent ambassadors to Canaan and Byblos in Phoenicia to establish peaceful commercial trade links. He founded the city of Crocodilopolis and built the first temple to the god Ptah.

Legend has it, that he died at the age of sixty three, killed by wild dogs and crocodiles near Fayum. According to Manetho he was killed by a hippopotamus after a 62 year reign. His was buried at Saqqara, the necropolis of Memphis. His wife Neithotep became regent until their child, Djer, was old enough to reign.

Herodotus on Menes

Djer, married to Herneith, ruled from Memphis during fifty years, building palaces and conducting military expeditions against Asiatics in the Sinai desert. An inscription with his name south of the first cataract points to the extent of the realm.

Of Djet (Wadj), who succeeded him little is known. His limestone stela was found near Abydos where he was buried.

Queen Merenith ruled Egypt as regent when Den became king as a child. There are, however, many scholars who think that Merenith was a ruler in her own right. Stone vessels and sealings bearing her name were found at Saqqara, as was a stela with her name written in an archaic form with crossed arrows signifying the name of Neith. Merenith has two burial sites, one at Abydos and one at Saqqara (Mastaba 3503). The Saqqara tomb contains some artifacts that show the the name of a high court official called Seshemka. The Abydos burial complex is amongst those of the kings of her dynasty.

During Den's fifty year reign he conducted military campaigns in the Sinai desert in order to gain control of the mineral deposits there. He was buried at Saqqara, even though he built his mortuary complex in Abydos. The cult of Apis was introduced during his reign.

Anendjib who was legitimized by his marriage to Betrest of the Memphite royal family, ruled for fourteen years from Memphis. His power over the south was challenged by local tribes and the northern nomes were often rebellious.

Semerkhet reigned for only nine years, and is thought by some to have been a usurper. According to Manetho disasters occurred during his reign. He may have caused the unrest during Anendjib's reign. He is responsible for erasing Anendjib's name from stone vases. A little black stela bearing his name is the only direct evidence found.

Qa'a is mentioned on jar sealings and two damaged stela. One one of these stela he is shown wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt and being embraced by the God Horus. According to Manetho he reigned for about 26 years. He was buried at Abydos in the tomb designated Tomb Q. A German archaeological expedition in 1993 re-excavated the tomb and discovered that several alterations had been made in the tomb.

Until the reign of Den Egypt seems to have enjoyed stability and prosperity. Order broke down during Anendjib's reign, when conflicting factions caused changes that would end this great dynasty. The practice of subsidiary burial where retainers were killed in order to serve the ruler in the afterlife ceased after the reign of Qa'a.

2nd Dynasty (2890-2686 BCE)

According to Manetho, this dynasty consisted of nine kings of Thinis. The royal names Manetho gives bear little resemblance to those found in contemporary inscriptions. These rulers were buried at Saqqara or Abydos.

Hotepsekhemwy has been identified only by some sealings discovered at Saqqara near the Pyramid of Unas. He may have been given his name which translates asPleasing in Powers for having ended the political strife that occurred during the 1st Dynasty. His rule spanned 35 years and may have been ended by a military coup organized by his brother.

Raneb followed Hotepsekhemwy to the throne of Egypt, and is thought to have ruled for 39 years. Many sealings found at Saqqara and a stela located at Abydos bear his name. Raneb had, according to Manetho, initiated the worship of the sacred goat of Mendes.

Nynetjer ruled according to some accounts for 47 years. The Palermo Stone records a number of events that occurred between the 6th and 26th year of his reign. He had many festivals dedicated to various deities of Egypt. among them the Running of the Apis Bull. The wrecking of the city of Shem-Re is connected with his name.

Peribsen (Sekhemib) made sweeping political changes. The serekhs bearing the royal names are not surmounted by Horus anymore but by his religious rival, Seth, who became the primary royal patron deity. A stela bearing Peribsen's name found at Abydos illustrates this change in loyalties. He may have been a usurper or a member of a collateral branch of the ruling family. Peribsen was buried at Abydos.

When Khasekhemwy ascended the throne he had to put down a Northern rebellion. The rebels reached as far south as Nekheb and Nekhen, the ancient southern capital. His victory is described on two statues. Both portraits show the king with northerners cringing at his feet wearing the White Crown symbolizing the South. It is recorded that there were more than 47,000 casualties.

A statue of him, which resides in the Cairo Museum, is the first example of use of hard stone . He married Nemathap, a woman of royal Northern lineage. The marriage consolidated the kings rule in both regions. Nemathap is documented as being a "King Bearing Mother". She is also credited with being the ancestor of the 3rd Dynasty.

The Negative Confession

The Negative Confession (also known as The Declaration of Innocence) is a list of 42 sins which the soul of the deceased can honestly say it has never committed when it stands in judgment in the afterlife. The most famous list comes from The Papyrus of Ani, a text of The Egyptian Book of the Dead, prepared for the priest Ani of Thebes (c. 1250 BCE) and included among the grave goods of his tomb. It includes a number of chapters from the Book of the Dead but not all of them. These omissions are not a mistake, nor have sections of the manuscript been lost, but are the result of a common practice of creating a funerary text specifically for a certain person's use in the afterlife. The Negative Confession included in this text follows this same paradigm as it would have been written for Ani, not for anyone else.

Although The Egyptian Book of the Dead is often described as 'the ancient Egyptian Bible' or a scary 'book of the occult,' it is actually neither; it is a funerary text providing instruction to the soul in the afterlife. The actual translation of the work's title is The Book of Coming Forth by Day. Since the ancient Egyptians believed that the soul was eternal and one's life on earth was only a brief aspect of an eternal journey, it was considered vital that the soul have some kind of guidebook to navigate the next phase of existence.

On earth, it was understood, if one did not know where one was going, one could not arrive at the desired destination. The Egyptians, being eminently practical, believed one would need a guide in the afterlife just as one did on earth. The Egyptian Book of the Dead is such a guide and was provided for anyone who could afford to have one made. The poor had to make do without a text or a rudimentary work but anyone who could afford it would pay for a scribe to create a personalized guidebook.

THE CONFESSION IS SIGNIFICANT FOR MODERN-DAY EGYPTOLOGISTS IN UNDERSTANDING ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CULTURAL VALUES IN THE NEW KINGDOM.

The Negative Confession appears in Spell 125 which is easily the most famous as it includes the accompanying vignette of the weighing of the heart on the scale against the white feather of ma'at. Although the spell does not describe the judgment in the Hall of Two Truths, the illustration is meant to show what the soul could expect once it arrived there and the text provided that soul with what to say and how to behave. The Confession is significant for modern-day Egyptologists in understanding ancient Egyptian cultural values in the New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE), but at the time it was written, it would have been considered necessary in order for one to pass through judgment before Osiris and the divine tribunal.

The Confession is thought to have developed from an initiation ritual for the priesthood. The priests, it is claimed, would need to recite some kind of formulaic list in order to prove themselves ritually pure and worthy of their vocation. Although some evidence exists to support this claim, the Negative Confession as it stands seems to have developed in the New Kingdom of Egypt, when the cult of Osiris was fully integrated into Egyptian culture, as the way for the deceased to justify themselves as worthy of paradise in the afterlife.

JUDGMENT IN THE AFTERLIFE

Funerary texts had been written in Egypt since the time of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) when the Pyramid Texts were inscribed on tomb walls. The Coffin Texts followed later in the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) and these were developed for The Egyptian Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom. The purpose of these texts was to orient and reassure the soul of the deceased once it awoke in its tomb following the funeral. The soul would be unused to the world outside of the body and would need to be reminded of who it had been, what it had done, and what it should do next.

In most depictions, the soul would be led from the tomb by Anubis to stand in judgment before Osiris, Thoth, and the 42 Judges. Depictions of this process show the souls of the dead standing in a line, administered to by various deities such as Qebhet, Nephthys, Isis, and Serket, while they wait their turn to come before Osiris and his golden scales. When one's turn came, one would stand before the gods and recite the Negative Confession - each one addressed to a specific judge - and then hand over one's heart to be weighed in the balances. The physical heart was always left in the body of the corpse during the embalming and mummification process for this very reason. It was thought that the heart contained one's character, one's personality, and intellect, and would need to be surrendered to the gods in the afterlife for judgment.

Book of the Dead

The heart was placed on the scale in balance against the white feather of truth and, if it was found to be lighter, one went on toward paradise; if it was heavier it was dropped onto the floor where it was eaten by the monster Amut and the soul then ceased to exist. Prior to this final judgment and one's reward or punishment, Osiris, Thoth, and Anubis would confer with the 42 Judges. This would be the point at which allowances might be made. The 42 Judges represented the spiritual aspects of the 42 nomes (districts) of ancient Egypt and it is thought that each of the confessions addressed a certain kind of sin which would have been particularly offensive in a specific nome. If the judges felt that one had been more virtuous than not, it was recommended that the soul be justified and allowed to pass on.

The details of what happened next vary from era to era. In some periods, the soul would have to navigate certain dangers and traps to reach paradise while, in others, one simply walked on to Lily Lake after judgment and, after a final test, was taken across to paradise. Once there, the soul would enjoy an eternity in a world which perfectly reflected one's life on earth. Everything one thought had been lost would be returned, and souls would live in peace with each other and the gods, enjoying all of the best aspects of life for eternity. Before one could reach this paradise, however, the Negative Confession had to be accepted by the gods and this meant one had to be able to sincerely mean what was said.

THE DIFFERENT CONFESSIONS

There is no standard Negative Confession. The confession from The Papyrus of Ani is the best known only because that text is so famous and so often reproduced. As noted, scribes would tailor a text to the individual, and so while there was a standard number of 42 confessions, the sins which are listed varied from text to text. For example, in The Papyrus of Ani confession number 15 is "I am not a man of deceit," while elsewhere it is "I have not commanded to kill," and in another, "I have not been contentious in affairs." An officer in the military would not be able to honestly claim "I have not commanded to kill" nor would a judge or a king, and so that 'sin' would be left off their confession.

THE SOUL WAS PROVIDED WITH A LIST IT COULD SPEAK TRUTHFULLY IN FRONT OF THE GODS INSTEAD OF A STANDARD INVENTORY OF SINS EVERYONE WOULD HAVE TO RECITE.

This was not weighing the confession in the deceased's favor so much as ensuring one did not condemn one's self by speaking falsely. The heart would still be weighed in the balances, after all, and any deceit would be known. The soul was therefore provided with a list it could speak truthfully in front of the gods instead of a standard inventory of sins everyone would have to recite.

Still, there are standard sins in every list such as "I have not stolen," "I have not slandered," "I have not caused pain," and other similar claims. It is also thought that these statements carried unspoken stipulations in many cases. Confession 10 in some texts reads "I have not caused anyone to weep," but this is a very difficult claim to make since one often has no idea how one's actions have affected others. It is therefore thought that the intent of the claim is "I have not intentionally caused anyone to weep." The same could be said for a claim such as "I have not made suffering for anyone" and for the same reason. The point of the confession was to be able to honestly claim innocence of actions which were contrary to the principle of ma'at, and so, no matter what specific sins were included, one needed to be able to say one was innocent of willfully challenging the governing principle of harmony and balance in life.

THE NEGATIVE CONFESSION OF ANI

Ma'at was the central cultural value of ancient Egypt which allowed the universe to function as it did. In making the confession, the soul was stating that it had adhered to this principle and that any failings were unintentional. In the following confession, Ani addresses himself to each of the 42 Judges in the hope that they will recognize his intentions in life, even if he may not always have chosen the right action at the right moment. One was not supposed to consider 'sins of omission' but only 'sins of commission' which were pursued intentionally.

Papyrus of Ani

The following translation is by E. A. Wallis Budge from his original work on The Egyptian Book of the Dead. Each confession is preceded by a salutation to a specific judge and the region they come from. Some of these regions, however, are not on earth but in the afterlife. Hraf-Haf, for example, who is hailed in number 12, is the divine ferryman in the afterlife. In Ani's case, then, the 42 nomes are not fully represented (some, in fact, are mentioned twice) but the standard number of 42 is still adhered to. Prior to beginning the Confession, the soul would greet Osiris, make an assertion that it knew the names of the 42 Judges, and proclaim its innocence of wrong-doing, ending with the statement "I have not learnt that which is not." This means the person never lost faith or entertained a belief contrary to the truth of ma'at and the will of the gods.


1. Hail, Usekh-nemmt, who comest forth from Anu, I have not committed sin.
2. Hail, Hept-khet, who comest forth from Kher-aha, I have not committed robbery with violence.
3. Hail, Fenti, who comest forth from Khemenu, I have not stolen.
4. Hail, Am-khaibit, who comest forth from Qernet, I have not slain men and women.
5. Hail, Neha-her, who comest forth from Rasta, I have not stolen grain.
6. Hail, Ruruti, who comest forth from Heaven, I have not purloined offerings.
7. Hail, Arfi-em-khet, who comest forth from Suat, I have not stolen the property of God.
8. Hail, Neba, who comest and goest, I have not uttered lies.
9. Hail, Set-qesu, who comest forth from Hensu, I have not carried away food.
10. Hail, Utu-nesert, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have not uttered curses.
11. Hail, Qerrti, who comest forth from Amentet, I have not committed adultery.
12. Hail, Hraf-haf, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have made none to weep.
13. Hail, Basti, who comest forth from Bast, I have not eaten the heart.
14. Hail, Ta-retiu, who comest forth from the night, I have not attacked any man.
15. Hail, Unem-snef, who comest forth from the execution chamber, I am not a man of deceit.
16. Hail, Unem-besek, who comest forth from Mabit, I have not stolen cultivated land.
17. Hail, Neb-Maat, who comest forth from Maati, I have not been an eavesdropper.
18. Hail, Tenemiu, who comest forth from Bast, I have not slandered anyone.
19. Hail, Sertiu, who comest forth from Anu, I have not been angry without just cause.
20. Hail, Tutu, who comest forth from Ati, I have not debauched the wife of any man.
21. Hail, Uamenti, who comest forth from the Khebt chamber, I have not debauched the wives of other men.
22. Hail, Maa-antuf, who comest forth from Per-Menu, I have not polluted myself.
23. Hail, Her-uru, who comest forth from Nehatu, I have terrorized none.
24. Hail, Khemiu, who comest forth from Kaui, I have not transgressed the law.
25. Hail, Shet-kheru, who comest forth from Urit, I have not been angry.
26. Hail, Nekhenu, who comest forth from Heqat, I have not shut my ears to the words of truth.
27. Hail, Kenemti, who comest forth from Kenmet, I have not blasphemed.
28. Hail, An-hetep-f, who comest forth from Sau, I am not a man of violence.
29. Hail, Sera-kheru, who comest forth from Unaset, I have not been a stirrer up of strife.
30. Hail, Neb-heru, who comest forth from Netchfet, I have not acted with undue haste.
31. Hail, Sekhriu, who comest forth from Uten, I have not pried into other's matters.
32. Hail, Neb-abui, who comest forth from Sauti, I have not multiplied my words in speaking.
33. Hail, Nefer-Tem, who comest forth from Het-ka-Ptah, I have wronged none, I have done no evil.
34. Hail, Tem-Sepu, who comest forth from Tetu, I have not worked witchcraft against the king.
35. Hail, Ari-em-ab-f, who comest forth from Tebu, I have never stopped the flow of water of a neighbor.
36. Hail, Ahi, who comest forth from Nu, I have never raised my voice.
37. Hail, Uatch-rekhit, who comest forth from Sau, I have not cursed God.
38. Hail, Neheb-ka, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have not acted with arrogance.
39. Hail, Neheb-nefert, who comest forth from thy cavern, I have not stolen the bread of the gods.
40. Hail, Tcheser-tep, who comest forth from the shrine, I have not carried away the khenfu cakes from the spirits of the dead.
41. Hail, An-af, who comest forth from Maati, I have not snatched away the bread of the child, nor treated with contempt the god of my city.
42. Hail, Hetch-abhu, who comest forth from Ta-she, I have not slain the cattle belonging to the god.

THE NINTH DIVISION OF THE TUAT,

WHICH IS CALLED BEST-ARU-ANKHET-KHEPERU.

HAVING passed through the EIGHTH DIVISION of the Tuat, the boat of the sun arrives at the NINTH DIVISION, which is passed through by the sun during the NINTH HOUR of the night. 

The opening text reads:--

"This great god taketh up his place in this Circle,and he addresseth words from his boat to those who are in it. The divine sailors join the boat of this great god in this City. The name of the gate of this City through which this god entereth and taketh up his place on the stream which is in this City is SAA-EM-KEB; the name of this City is BEST-ARU-ANKHET-KHEPERU; the name of the Hour of the night which guideth this great god is TUATET-MAKETET-EN-NEB-S."

The line of text which runs above the upper register reads:--

"The hidden Circle of Amentet, through which this great god travelleth and taketh up his place in the Tuat. If these things be made with their names after the manner of this figure which is depicted at the east of the hidden house of the Tuat, and if a man knoweth their names whilst he is upon earth, and knoweth their places in Amenti, [he shall attain to] his own place in the Tuat, and he shall stand up in all places which belong to the gods whose voices (or, words) are maat, even as the divine sovereign chiefs (tchatcha) of Ra, and the mighty ones of the palace (Pharaohs?), and [this knowledge] shall be of benefit to him upon earth."

In the middle register are:--

1. The boat of the sun, with the god AFU standing under a canopy formed by the serpent MEHEN.
2. The, Twelve Sailors of Ra, each of whom stands upright, and holds a paddle in his hands; their names are:--

1. KHENNU, i.e., "the sailor" par excellence.
2. AKHEM-SEK-F.
3. AKHEM-URT-F.
4. AKHEM-HEMI-F.
5. AKHEM-HEP-F.
6. AKHEM-KNEMES-F.
7. KHEN-UNNUT-F,
8. HEPTI-TA-F.
9. HETEP-UAA.
10. NETER-NETERU.
11. TCHA-TUAT.
12. TEPI.

The text which refers to these reads:--

"This great god joineth those who will transport him through this City, and his sailors join his boat wherein he is in his hidden form of MEHEN. This great god addresseth words to the gods who dwell in this City, that is to say, to the gods who are the sailors of the boat of Ra and to those who will transport [him] through the horizon so that he may take up his position in the eastern Hall of heaven. Their work in the Tuat is to transport Ra through this City every day, and they take their stand by the stream in this City whereon [saileth] the boat, and it is they who give water with their paddles to the spirits who are in this City, and they sing hymns to the Lord of the Disk, and they make to arise [his] Soul in his forms by means of their hidden words every day."

3. A bearded, man-headed hawk, wearing plumes and horns on his head, seated on a basket or bowl; his name is MUTI-KHENTI-TUAT.
4. The ram-god NESTI-KHENTI-TUAT, couchant on a basket or bowl.
5. The cow-goddess NEBT-AU-KHENTI-TUAT.
6. A bearded god, in mummied form, called HETEPET-NETER, or HETEPET-NETERU.

The text which refers to these reads:

"Those who are in this picture in this City are they who give offerings of food to the gods who are in the Tuat; Ra decreeth for them loaves of bread and vessels of beer, and the gods journey on in the following of this great god to the Eastern horizon of the sky, with HETEP-NETERU-TUAT [also] following him."

In the upper register are:--

1. Twelve gods, each of whom is seated upon the symbol of linen swathings; their names are:--

1. NEHA-TA.
2. TEBA.
3. MAATI (or, ARITI).
4. MENKHET.
5. HEBS.
6. NEBTI.
7. ASTI-NETER.
8. ASTI-PAUT.
9. HETEMET-KHU.
10. NEB-PAT.
11. TEMTU.
12. MEN-A.

The text which refers to these reads: 

"Those who are in this picture in the Tuat are seated firmly on their instruments for weaving, and they are in the form of the figures which Horus made. Ra saith to them:--O ye who are swathed in your holy swathings, who are arrayed in your garments, whom Horus covered up when he hid his father in the Tuat, which concealeth the gods, uncover ye your heads, O ye gods, unveil ye your faces, and perform ye the things which must be done for Osiris! Ascribe ye praise to the lord of AMENTET, and make ye your word maat against his enemies every day. These beings are the tchatcha (i.e., divine sovereign chiefs) of this god, and they avenge by their words Osiris each day; and the work which they do in the Tuat is to overthrow the enemies of Osiris."

2. Twelve goddesses, whose names are:--

1. PERIT.
2. SHEMAT-KHU.
3. NEBT-SHAT.
4. NEBT-SHEFSHEFT.
5. AAT-AATET.
6. NEBT-SETAU.
7. HENT-NUT-S.
8. NEBT-MAT.
9. TESERT-ANT.
10. AAT-KHU
11. SEKHET-METU.
12. NETERT-EN-KHENTET-RA.

The text which refers to these reads: 

"Those who are in this picture with their bodies of the Tuat are they who are in the forms which Horus made. This great god crieth out to them after he hath arrived at the place where they are, and they come to life and they hear [his] voice. Their work in the Tuat is to raise the praises of Osiris, and to embrace the hidden Soul by means of their words and to bring life and strength to the risings of the god of the Tuat [in whatsoever regions they are], and they utter words on [his behalf] in the chamber each day."

In the lower register are:--

1. Twelve uraei, which are mounted each on its instrument for weaving, and each pours forth fire from its mouth; their names are:--

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. TEKAIT.
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. KHUT-TUAT.
5. TERTNESHEN.
6. AP-SHET.
7. ANKHET,
8. SHEN-TEN-AMM.
9 . . . . . . . . .
10. AAT-ARU.
11. NEBT-UAUAU.
12. NEBT-REKEH.

Above the uraei is a mutilated line of text, which, according to Maspero's restoration, reads:

"The names of the uraei who kindle fires for the god who is the governor of the Tuat by means of the fire which is in their mouths. They swallow their flames after this god hath passed by them." The text which refers to them reads: "Those who are in this picture [are] in the Tuat [and they have bodies of fire], and it is they who lighten the, darkness in the Tuat for [Osiris] . . . by means of the flames of fire which come forth from their mouths, [and it is they who bring about the destruction of] those who are overthrown in the Tuat. It is they who drive back the serpents of every kind which are on the ground, and which are unknown in their forms to the god of the Tuat. They make themselves to live by means of the blood of those whom they hack to pieces each day [when] those advance who endow with magical power the dead by the mystery of their formulae. Those who know this shall see their magical formulæ, and shall not pass through their flames."

2. Nine bearded gods, who stand upright; each holds the symbol of "life" in his right hand, and a staff, the upper portion of which is in the form of a wriggling snake, in the left hand. These gods are under the direction of a god in mummied form, whose name, or description, is HERU-HER-SHE-TUATI, i.e., "Horus who is over the lakes in the Tuat." 

The names of the nine gods are:--

1. SEKHTI.
2. AM-SEKHET-F.
3. NEHEBETI.
4. TCHAMUTI.
5. NEB-AATTI.
6. HEQ-NETERU-F.
7. PAN-ARI.
8. TESER-ARI.
9. AHA-SEKHET.

THE EIGHTH DIVISION OF THE TUAT,

 WHICH IS CALLED TEBAT-NETERU-S.

THE scene that illustrates the EIGHTH DIVISION Of the Tuat, which is passed through by the Sun-god during the EIGHTH HOUR of the night, is introduced by four lines of text which read:--

"The Majesty of this great god taketh up its place in the Circles of the hidden gods who are on their sand, and he addresseth to them words in his boat whilst the gods tow him along through this City by means of the magical powers of the serpent MEHEN.
The name of the gate of this City is AHA-AN-URT-NEF.
The name of this City is TEBAT-NETERU-S.
The name of the Hour of the night which guides this great god is NEBT-USHA."

The Circles of this Division are thus described:--

"The hidden Circles of Ament which are passed through by the great god, his boat being towed along by the gods who dwell in the Tuat; let them be made according to the figures [which are depicted] on the north of the hidden palace in the Tuat. Whosoever knoweth them by their names shall be the possessor of swathings upon earth, and he shall not be repulsed at the hidden gates, and he shall have offerings in very great abundance regularly and perpetually."

In the middle register are:--

1. The boat of the sun, in which the god stands under a canopy formed by the body of the serpent Mehen, being towed along by nine gods. His passage is thus described: "This god maketh his way into this City, being towed along by the gods of the Tuat, in his hidden form of MEHEN. This god sendeth forth a cry to the regions of every Circle of this City, and also to the gods who are therein, and it is the voice of them which this god heareth after he hath sent forth a cry to them. The figures of their bodies remain always with their dead bodies which are under their sand, and their gates open to the voice of this god each day, and then they hide themselves after he hath passed by them. Their work in the Tuat is to tow Ra along over the ways of this City, and they rise up after they have towed him along into this Hall, and they say unto him:--O thou god, come thou to thine hidden image, O our god, and to all the sepulchres of KHENTI-AMENTI, unite thyself strongly to it, and mayest thou be entreated to lighten the darkness of those who are on their sands. We beseech thee to come and to unite thyself, O Ra, to those who tow thee along." The eight gods who tow along the boat of Ra are thus described: "These are the gods of the Tuat who tow alone, Ra in the place where the gods have their sepulchres (TEBAT-NETERU-SET), and he is [acclaimed] by those who are in this City. The images secret of TATHENEN, Of Horus (?), [and of] the gods are with them."

2. Nine large objects somewhat in the form of the hieroglyphic shems, which has the meaning of "follower" or "servant"; unlike this sign, however, each of the nine objects is provided with a huge knife, and from the curved end of each is suspended a human head. M. Maspero is undoubtedly correct in describing these as the servants of the god.

The names of the nine servants are:--

1. HETEP-TA.
2. AMEN.
3. SESHETA-BAIU (?).
4. SEKHEN-KHAIBIT.
5. NEB-ER-TCHER.
6. MENNU.
7. MATHENU.
8. METRUI.
9. PEREMU (?).

Of these gods it is said:

"Those who are in this picture are those who are on the path along which this god is towed, and they have their swathings before them in the form in which the god himself [had them]. This our great god crieth out unto those who have their life in them, in [their] heads in their forms, and this god crieth out to them by their names. Their work is [to seize] the enemies of Ra everywhere throughout this City, and then to make their heads to pass under their swords after this god hath passed them by."

3. A ram, having the solar disk between his horns, and the symbol of linen bandages (image or symbol for purity much like a bride for her wedding) in front of him; he is an image of TATHENEN, of whom he is the "first form."
4. A ram, having the crown of the South between his horns, and the symbol of linen bandages in front of him; he is an image of TATHENEN, of whom he is the "second form."
5. A ram, having the crown of the North between his horns, and the symbol of linen bandages in front of him; he is an image of TATHENEN, of whom he is the "third form."
6. A ram, having the solar disk and a pair of plumes above his horns, and the symbol of linen bandages in front of him; he is an image of TATHENEN, of whom he is the "fourth form."

The text which refers to these reads:

"Those who are in this picture in the Tuat, with their swathings of linen in front of them, in the form in which the god himself [had them], are they to whom he crieth out after he hath come to the place where they are. And they on their part cry out to this god with their voices which are joyful but hidden, and this god singeth a song of joy at their voices. After [this great god] hath passed by them, and when the darkness of night hath covered them over, they receive the diadems of Ra, and the soul of TATHENEN uniteth itself to the earth."

In the upper register are five Circles of the Tuat, and a door, which may be thus described:--

1. This Circle, which is called SESHETA, is entered through a door with the name of TES-NEB-TERER . . . . .,

and in it are seated:--

1. The image of TEM, wearing the White Crown.
2. The image of KHEPERA.
3. The image of SHU.

Each of these is seated upon an instrument for weaving.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] on their instruments for weaving [after the manner] of Horus, the heir, the youthful one. This god crieth out to their souls after he hath entered into this City of the gods who are on their sand, and there are heard the voices of [those who are] shut in this Circle which are like [the hum] of many bees of honey when their souls cry out to Ra, The name of this Circle is SESHETA."

2. This Circle, which is called TUAT, is entered through a door with the name of TES-AHA-TATHENEN,

and in it are seated:

1. The image of TEFNET.
2. The image of SEB.
3. The image of NUT.

Each of these is seated upon an instrument for weaving. The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] upon their instruments for weaving, which are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horus made. This god crieth out to their souls in whatsoever regions they are, and there are heard the voices of [those who are] shut in this Circle which are like the sound of the swathed ones [when] their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is TUAT."

3. This Circle, which is called AS-NETERU, is entered through a door with the name of TES-AKHEM-BAIU,

and in it are seated:--

1. The image of OSIRIS.
2. The image of ISIS.
3. The image of HORUS, hawk-headed.

Each of these is seated as before.

The text reads:

 "Those who are in this picture are [seated] upon their instruments for weaving, which are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horns made. This god crieth out to their souls in whatsoever regions they are, and there is heard the sound of the voices of [those who are] shut in this Circle, which is like unto the sound of men who lament when their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is AS-NETERU."

4. This Circle, which is called AAKEBI, is entered through a door with the name of TES-SHETA-THEHEN-NETERU,

and in it are seated

1. The image of KA-AMENTET, bull-headed.
2. The image of BA-NETERU, ram-headed.
3. The image of REM-NETERU, ram-headed.

Each of these is seated as before.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] upon their instruments for weaving, which are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horns made. This god crieth out to their souls in whatsoever regions they are, and there is heard the sound of the voices of those who are shut in this Circle, which is like unto the sounds of bulls and of other male animals when their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is AAKEBI."

5. This Circle, which is called NEBT-SEMU-NIFU, is entered through a door having the name of TENS-SMA-KEKIU,

and in it are seated:

1. The image of KHATRI, ichneumon-headed.
2. The image of AFFI, animal-headed.
3 The image of ARI-ANB-FI, cynocephalus-headed.


Each of these gods is seated as before.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] upon their instruments for weaving, which are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horus made. This god crieth out to their souls in whatsoever regions they are, and there is heard the sound of the voices of those who are shut ill this Circle, which is like unto the sound of those who make supplication through terror when their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is "NEBT-SEMU-NIFU."

6. An open door, called TES-KHAIBITU-TUATIU, beyond which is a goddess.

In the lower register are also five Circles, and an open door, which may be thus described:--

1. This Circle, which is called HETEPET-NEB-S, is entered through a door having the name of TET-SEM-ERMEN-TA, in it are:--

1. A goddess standing upright, called AMEM (?).
2. The serpent MEHEN-TA.
3. Three arrows lying on the top of these are the "arrows of Ra."
4. A rain-headed god, seated on (instruments for weaving); his name is NEB-REKHIT.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] upon their instruments for weaving, [which are set firmly on their sand], according to the mystery which Horus, the heir, the young [god] made. This great god crieth out to their souls after he hath entered into this City of the gods who are upon their sand, and when this god crieth out to them in the two ATERTI there is heard the sound of those who are shut in this Circle, which is like unto the voices of male cats when they cry out and their souls cry out to RA. The name of this Circle is HETEPET-NEB-S."

2. This Circle, which is called HETEMET-KHEMIU, is entered through a door having the name TES-RA-KHEFTIU-F, in it are:--

1. NUT, bearded and man-headed.
2. TA, bearded and man-headed.
3. SEBEQ-HRA, crocodile-headed.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] upon their instruments for weaving, which are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horus made. This god crieth out to their souls, in whatsoever regions they are in the two Aterti, and there is heard the sound of the voices of those who are shut in this Circle which is like unto the sound of the confused murmur of the living when their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is HETEMET-KHEMIU."

3. This Circle, which is called HAP-SEMU-S, is entered through a door having the name of TES-SEKHEM-ARU, in it are four mummied gods, each with an instrument for weaving in front of him,

and their names are:--

1. HEBSET.
2. SENKET.
3. TEBAT.
4. TEMTET.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture have their instruments for weaving before them, and they are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horus made. This god crieth out to their souls, in whatsoever regions they are in the two ATERTI, and there is heard the sound of the voices of those who are shut in this Circle, which is like unto the sound of the voices of those who go down to the battle-field of Nu when their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is HAP-SEMU-S."

4. This Circle, which is called SEHERT-BAIU-S, is entered through a door having the name of TES-SEPT-NESUT, in it are four mummied gods, each with an instrument for weaving in front of him,

and their names are:--

1. KEKU.
2. MENHI.
3. TCHER-KHU.
4. KHEBS-TA.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture have their instruments of weaving before them, and they are set firmly on their sand, according to the mystery which Horns made. This god crieth out to their souls in whatsoever regions they are in the two ATERTI, and there is heard the sound of voices of those who are shut in this Circle, which is like unto the sound of the cry of the Divine Hawk of Horns when their souls cry out to Ra. The name of this Circle is SEHERT-BAIU-S."

5. This Circle, which is called AAT-SETEKAU, is entered through a door having the name of TES-KHU; in it are four uraei, each of which rests upon its instrument for weaving,

and their names are:--

1. AARET-ANKH.
2. RERIT-ANKH.
3. NESERT-ANKHET.
4. SEPTAT-ANKH.

The text reads:

"Those who are in this picture are [seated] on their instruments of weaving, and they are set firmly on their sand. This god crieth out to them in whatsoever regions they are, and they shed light by means of their radiance [which cometh] from the depth of their mouths, but they do not come forth from their Circle, and there is heard the sound of the voices of those who are shut in this Circle which is like unto the twittering of the whole of the birds of a nest of water-fowl when they cry out to Ra. The. name of this Circle is AAT-SETEKAU."

6. A door called TES-AMEM-MIT-EM-SHETA-F.

Beyond it is a figure of the god Nu, who appears to be over the "chamber of destruction."

The Book of Caverns

The Book of Caverns appears to have originated in the Ramessid Period (the 20th Dynasty). As an underworld book, it seems almost to emphasize that previous text had been too soft on those deceased who fail their judgment in the afterlife, while at the same time focusing also on the rewards of those who do. It is, in fact, one of our best sources on the ancient Egyptian concept of Hell.

The Osireion, a well known cenotaph of Seti I located at Abydos, along with his mortuary temple, has the first known version of The Book of Caverns that is nearly complete (having its upper register damaged. It is found directly across from the rendering of the Book of Gates within the entry corridor on the left wall. Hence, it appears to be a relatively late funerary text of the New Kingdom, not showing up at all until the 19th Dynasty, and not making it into the tombs within the Valley of the Kings until the following reigns. A deviated version of the final depictions are given a dominant position in the decorative theme of the sarcophagus chamber in the tombs of Merneptah (KV8), Tausert (KV14) and Ramesses III (KV11), so versions of this book may have also been inscribed on earlier gilded shrines around the sarcophagi. Unfortunately, these earlier shrines are lost to us, so that possibility may never be known.

In the third corridor of the tomb of Ramesses IV (KV2) in the Valley of the Kings, Ramesses IV employed the earliest versions of the first and second sections of The Book of Caverns, rather than the traditional Amduat passages, and then repeats these passages twice more in the room behind his sarcophagus chamber. By the reign of Ramesses VI (KV9), we find an almost complete version of the book, here as in the Osireion, opposite the Book of Gates in the front half of the tomb, though due to the limited wall space, some passages had to be continued on pillars and in the upper pillared hall as well. While in the tomb of Ramesses VII (KV1), we find a similar arrangement to that of Ramesses VI on the right wall, here only the first corridor is decorated, with a small excerpt from The Book of Caverns second section. Later though, in the Tomb of Ramesses IX (KV6), there were selections from the first four sections on the right wall of the first and second corridors. However, in the sarcophagus chamber we also find parts of the two remaining sections of the book.

Afterwards, bits and pieces of The Book of Caverns appears here and there, during various periods. For example, the first section and passages of the fourth section, along with the concluding representations were included on a 21st Dynasty papyrus of Nedjmet. There is also a Late Period version in the tomb of Petamenophis that has yielded otherwise missing parts of the text, and another Late Period version containing the first two sections of the book were inscribed on the Nilometer at Roda Island. Though used rarely on late sarcophagi, one example exists with the book's first two sections, along with parts of the Amduat and the Litany of Re.

Jean Francois Champollion apparently first described the version of the book in the tomb of Ramesses VI, and even provided some translations in his thirteenth letter he sent from Egypt. However, no scholars seemed particularly interested in the book until a century later when a second complete version was discovered in the Osireion. Henri Frankfort tried to compose the first translation of that text, assisted by Adriaan de Buck in 1933. However, it was not until the period between 1941 and 1646 that Alexandre Piankoff executed an edition of the text based on several versions which he translated into French. He also translated the text from the tomb of Ramesses VI into English in 1954. Not until 1972 was a version translated into German by Erik Hornung, and a synoptic edition of the text has never been published.

The name we give this text, The Book of Gates, is a modern invention based on the netherworld being divided into "caves" or actually "caverns" from the Egyptian "qerert", for no original title has ever been discovered. However, it should be noted that Piankoff translated qerert to mean "envelope" or "cocoon". Unlike the Amduat and the Book of Gates, this book is not divided up into regions of the night, though an attempt is made to follow the general divisions divided up between three registers. However, these registers often had to be staggered due to space limitations. In all, every version divides the two initial sections into five registers. We also end up with problems in the version of the book in the tombs of Ramesses VI and Ramesses IX, for apparently the initial design of these versions was meant for a left hand wall, but transposed on the right hand wall.

The Book of Caverns is divided into two halves by two large depictions of the ram headed sun god, and each half is further divided into three parts. Hence there are a total of six sections. The text of the first two sections of the book are separated from the representations, with the text placed after the representations, though this order is reversed in the version found in the tomb of Ramesses VII. Here, the sun god invokes the individual beings or groups of gods depicted in the representations within a long monologue. The remaining sections combine representations and captions, as well as a descriptive formula of the earlier books. Each section within the second half of The Book of Caverns is preceded by several litanies, with section five having a total of thirteen.



Like the Book of Gates, the Book of Caverns, with the exception of the final representation, divides the text into registers with further pictures. It should also be noted that it is more literary then previous funerary books of the New Kingdom, having a higher percentage of text to pictures. In section five, the depictions are of Nut and Osiris, with the image of Nut alluding to the theme of the Books of the Sky, which describes the nightly journey of the sun through the body of Nut.

The solar bargue is only found within the final representations. In sections three through six in which the damned and their punishment (occupying the lower registers) are not depicted, the individual scenes have a sun disk. The beings who are portrayed in the various caverns are often enclosed in ovals, while there are sarcophagi that enclose the bodies of gods and goddesses. In the single example found in the tomb of Ramesses VI, some two hundred remarks were added referring to the king.

The obvious theme of this book, like other such text, is the sun god's nightly passage through the netherworld. Interestingly, the distinction between Osiris and Re are clouded, and both actually seem to be viewed as attributes of a sole deity. A principle motif of the book is established primarily in section three. Here, Osiris, who is more prominent then in most prior funerary text, is encountered by Re as a corpse in his "coffer". In section four the god begins to regenerate. Less prominent is the battle with Apophis found in the Amduat and the Book of Gates.

First Section of the Book of Caverns

At the very beginning of the book, two vertical strips depict the solar disk and Re as a ram headed sun god. This is "Re who is in the sky", and his mission is to enter the primeval darkness in order to defend and and provide care to Osiris. Afterwards, depictions of section one are divided into five registers. The separate text is a monologue of Re directing various groups of entities. Here, the three snakes of the Duat's first cavern guard the cavern entrance. Re faces Osiris with his hand extended to him in the third register. We see Osiris within his shrine, protectively surrounded by a serpent, as are his followers inside their sarcophagi. In the bottom register, Osiris' enemies are shown beheaded though still guarded by another three serpents. They are to be punished in the "Place of Annihilation", an ancient Egyptian concept of Hell, as Re condemns them to nonexistence.

Second Section of the Book of Caverns

In section two, Re must reach the various gods and goddesses in their sarcophagi who are guarded by several serpents. He meets various forms of Osiris in the second register and beseeches them to "open their arms to me...receive me". In the third register, Re encounters Osiris in his coffer, which sits aside the ram and jackal headed posts of the sun god found also in the Book of Gates. Other forms of Osiris are encountered in the fourth register, while in the lowest register, we again find Osiris' enemies who are bound and beheaded. Some of these figures are depicted hanging head first with their hearts torn out. Once again, Re condemns them to nonexistence, sending them to the Place of Annihilation where their punishment is carried out by guards with knives. Now, Osiris is told by Re that he will enter the "cavern where Aker is".

Third Section of the Book of Caverns

Hence, in the third section, Re enters the cavern that contains Aker and finds the ithyphallic body of Osiris lying beneath Aker, an earth god. Here, in the first register, Osiris is depicted as the dead king in his sarcophagus, which is guarded by several serpents. After that scene we find depicted several figures with the heads of catfish. They are the helpers of Aker who we will encounter again, and represent the deepest and darkest regions of earth and water. In addition, Re also finds other manifestations of himself within sarcophagi, while the end of the register is filled with divine sarcophagi "in the cavern of Osiris-Khentamentiu".

In the middle register of the third section, we initially encounter Re once again in his manifestation as the Eldest One, who leans on a staff. He addresses four forms of Osiris as the "lords of the Duat". The center scene in this register depicts Aker as a double sphinx surrounded by the gods of the Ennead. The next scene seems to stress the unity of Re and Osiris, with the corpse of Osiris in his sarcophagus, along with a Ram's head, and the eye of Re in sarcophagi. Surrounding all of this is a ouroboros. Next, Osiris is once again shown surmounting a serpent as "the one who has become two".

In the lower register of section three, we once again encounter those who are in hell. In this case, the "enemies" are all upside down and some have been decapitated. Here, in the first two groups who are pleading for mercy, we find for the first time, female enemies. Now the wicked are in the primeval darkness of the Place of Annihilation, and by the end of the register, even their ba (souls) are upside down, and thus being punished. Interestingly, the ithyphallic corpse of Osiris is also here among the enemies, but the sun disk sits above him, and he is protected by a serpent.

Fourth Section of the Book of Caverns

The second half of the Book of Caverns begins with section four. Initially we find an erect serpent named Great One on His Belly, with the solar disk and the ram headed sun god to either side. Here, the opening text in vertical columns consists of three litanies praising the sun god, praising his beauty as he illuminates the region of darkness. Re faces Osiris and his followers and makes a number of promises. In the upper register, we first encounter Isis and Nephthys who lift the body of Osiris so that he may be resurrected. This is followed by a scene depicting Osiris being cared for by his two "sons", Anubis and Horus and following this, Osiris is portrayed as the Bull of the West, accompanies by Horus-Mekhentienirty, a mongoose (ichneumon) who is his son.



The second register of section four begins with Re, one more leaning on a staff, facing the three forms of Osiris. This is followed by a scene depicting Horus and Anubis protecting the double corpse of Osiris, and another scene where they stand in a pose symbolic of protecting Osiris and his ba.

In the lower register, we once again encounter the enemies in hell, who are found and standing on their heads, which this time have not been cut off. However, between them are the "annihilators in the Place of Annihilation,". In this initial scene, the punishing demon is Miuti, the "cat-formed one, from whose clutches there is no escape". We are told that there bodies have been robbed of their souls, and that they can neither see nor hear Re.

Fifth Section of the Book of Caverns

At the beginning of the fifth section of the Book of Caverns, Tatenen, the litanies reveal a little known but important deity as both an earth god and the father of the gods, who rejuvenates the sun. The initial depictions portrays Nut, the goddess of the sky, who lifts the ram headed sun god and the solar disk on her upraised palms. She faces the three registers and is surrounded by motifs representing the course of the sun, including on one side a scarab pushing the solar disk, then a ram, a disk, a ram headed deity and a child, while on the other side, a series of crocodiles pushes a ram's head, a scarab, an utchat eye and a disk. There is also human headed, bearded serpents that rear up on either side of Nut. Her arms are stretched towards the heavens in order to receive the solar child. Here, Nut is called the Mysterious One and "she with the mysterious form.".

A part of the Fifth Section of the Book of Caverns

The upper register of section five begins with Osiris, whose hands are extended out to Re, along with four human headed serpents. In the next scene, we encounter a representation of Tatenen, who is propped up by the corpses of Atum and Khepri. Next, we find two sarcophagi, one of which encases the two manifestations of Re as a child.

In the middle register, initially we find represented the four falcon headed mummies who are forms of Horus, which is followed by Anubis in his role as guardian and a coffin containing the scepter of Atum, which embodies the creative power of the sun god, and therefore "created the netherworld and brought forth the realm of the dead". At the end of this register, we find four unknown goddesses in sarcophagi.

The bottom register of this section opens once again with the ancient Egyptian concept of Hell, where a female deity who carries two stakes in her hand is about to punish two bound prisoners who kneel before her. In the following two scenes the enemies are being punished in large cauldrons. We see in the first cauldron their heads and hearts (which the ancient Egyptians thought of more as the mind), and in the second we find the decapitated, bound, upside down enemies themselves. A uraei fans the flames beneath the cauldrons, which are being held above the fire by the "arms of the Place of Annihilation.

The three registers of section five are interrupted by an image of Osiris, once again depicted in his ithyphallic guise, together with his ba that is symbolized by a bird atop his head. He is guarded by a protective serpent. As the registers continue, we first find an oval containing the four "flesh" hieroglyphs which refer to the corpse of Osiris. His corpse is now cared for by the light and voice of Re. Below this, the goddess Tayt greets the sun god and Osiris, which is followed by a scene depicting the head of Re in its ram manifestation being adored by Osiris and Horus. Another cauldron, in the lower register, contains the flesh, the souls and the shadows of the enemies of Re and Osiris. Once again, the arms of the Place of Annihilation hold the cauldron which is being heated by two goddesses.

It should be noted that the shadow held important connotations to the ancient Egyptians. It was considered to be a major component of an individual, as well as a separate mode of existence. We find the mention of shadows mostly in funerary text such as this, with early references appearing in the Coffin Text of the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom.

Between section five and six, the final part of the Book of Caverns, there is a long text consisting of thirteen litanies which refer to the prior section (five). Here, Re addresses all the entities, including his enemies, portrayed in the section five. The sun god gazes upon his own corpse with the intent of effecting the resurrection of Osiris-Imenrenef, who is "he whose name is hidden".

Sixth Section of the Book of Caverns

The first scene in the upper register of part six depicts the funerary god, Anubis, caring for corpses ("the bodies which are in the earth") in their sarcophagi, which is followed by a second scene where Anubis tends to the sun god, who in his sarcophagus, is depicted as a ram with a falcon head. In the third scene, the sun god, in several manifestations is now being watched over by two goddesses, each of whom stand on the symbols for flesh. Here, he is presented with a ram's head, as a scarab and in his role as "he of the netherworld". In the final scenes of this register, Osiris-Orion leans over a mound containing a fettered and decapitated figure, followed by a god who prays before a falcon. Osiris is shown protecting Horus, his son, as well as the sun god who is within Horus.

In the middle register, initially we find a scene portraying a scarab beetle pushing the sun disk before it out from "between the two mysterious caverns of the West" (the mountains of sunrise). This cavern contains both Osiris and Re, who are met by four standing gods. Here, text addresses the rebirth of the god, which is heralded by the scarab. Yet, even now there remains a final threat, depicted as the great serpent encircling the solar beetle. This obstacle is overcome by the "two old and great gods in the Duat", who cut the serpent into pieces and place a spell upon it. While this serpent seems malicious, another represented in the third scene appears to regenerates Re, who emerges from the mound in a ram head manifestation, to sit upon the tomb of Tatenen. In a fourth scene, two sarcophagi holding falcon headed gods are encountered by Re, while in the next scene, he meets several gods who are headless. Re restores their head with his creative power.



The motif of the lowest register, consistently followed throughout the Book of Caverns, is once again present in this final part of the sixth section. Again, we find scenes of punishment in the place of Annihilation, where at first, goddesses wielding knives torture supine, beheaded figures with their heads set at their feet and who's hearts have been torn from their bodies. The accompanying text also explains that the soul and shadows of these enemies have also been punished. In the second scene, we encounter four bound female enemies who are guarded by two jackal headed goddesses. Re has condemned these enemies, once again, to the "Place of Annihilation, from which there is no escape". Next, four more headless, kneeling and bound enemies are guarded by a god and goddess, and finally in the last scene, the enemies are thrown head first into the depths of the Place of Annihilation, while Osiris rises out of the abyss.

A final representation after the sixth section of the Book of Caverns shows Re emerging from the "two mounds", which are each protected by a god. We also find the solar barque, towed out of the netherworld by twelve gods, while seven more rejoice to either side. While the boat is not yet completely revealed, we do see the ba, the scarab and the ram headed morning form of the sun god, and in front of the barque, we see a ram headed scarab beetle, along with the sun as a child. A symbolic representation of the route through the netherworld, consisting of two triangles, is sown leading to a large representation of the sun disk. The triangles each are half black (the netherworld) and half blue, representing water. In the end, we finally witness Re at the end of his nightly journey, entering the eastern mountains from where he will rise once more to provide light for the living world.